AMERICAN STANDARD SCHOOL SERIES 



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I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. I 

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I UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



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THE CHILD'S GRAMMAR: 



FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 




By E.\M. MURCH, 



PROFESSOR IN THE BOYS' HIGH-SCHOOL. LO U IS VILLE, K Y. 




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LOUISVILLE: 

JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY, 

PUBLISHERS. 



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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 

JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



ELECTROTYPED BY ROBERT ROWELL, 
LOUISVILLE. 



PREFACE 



This book is what its title implies, a Child's Grammar. 
It was written for the children, not for grammarians and 
critical scholars of the language. Its chief aim is not to 
propose new principles, but to simplify and make easy 
such as are already known, and adapt them to the capaci- 
ties of young pupils. The effort has also been made by 
means of pictures and various novel devices to awaken and 
sustain the interest of the pupil and relieve the study of 
much of its tediousness. 

The author has endeavored to put himself on the same 
plane with the children, to think as they think and talk as 
they talk, avoiding at the same time that silly grandpapa 
style so often met with in so-called juvenile text-books. 

Throughout the whole work the principle is recognized 
that grammar is not a code of dead rules, petrified in the 
writings of past or present authors, but rather the expres- 
sion of the living genius of a language, wearing its livery 
and subserving its needs. 

Believing that the first grammatical essays of the child 
should be upon the words of his own little vocabulary, and 
not upon the language of great poets and other writers, 
the author has aimed to teach the young pupil first to use 
correctly his own familiar words in conveying his thoughts, 
as well as to enable him subsequently to understand lan- 
guage which he may read or hear, and appropriate its 
forms to his own use in expressing the ideas of his maturer 
mind. 

Original examples, expressed in familiar language, have 
been chosen for exercises, in preference to poetic quotations 
and other hackneyed sentences, which are generally above 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

the plane of the child's thought, and often artificial in 
construction and obscure in meaning. 

It is hoped that this little book will help to throw a 
new and pleasing light upon the old study of grammar, 
and reveal to the young pupil some of the excellences and 
beauties of our noble language. 



TO TEACHERS. 

It is assumed that the several parts of speech should be 
learned primarily from the nature of the words themselves, 
independently of their relations in sentences; hence the 
prominent characteristics of these several classes of words 
are first presented. Next the classes and properties of the 
parts of speech are presented, and the pupil is made to 
exercise his thinking powers in distinguishing the different 
properties on which this division into classes is based. 

For the Syntax many new and excellent features are 
claimed. Like the rest of the book, it is completely in- 
ductive. No rule or note is given until the pupil by a 
process of reasoning has deduced the principle upon which 
the rule is based. The arrangement of the matter in this 
part of the work, the clear open page, the agreeable 
variety, and good size of type will be appreciated by 
all teachers of children. . 

The descriptions under the larger pictures are designed 
to be read carefully by the pupil, the italicized words 
especially noted, and their application to the objects in 
the cut pointed out. The words are thus shown to have 
meanings, and these meanings are clearly and definitely 
conveyed to the pupil's mind. 

Copious exercises are introduced throughout the book, 
which, although they are thought to be happily arranged 
and very complete, are yet suggestive in character, and can 
be varied and enlarged at the discretion of the teacher. 



CONTENTS. 



Nouns 8 

Adjectives 16 

Verbs 26 

Adverbs '. 36 

Review 45 

Pronouns 49 

Prepositions 55 

Conjunctions 61 

Interjections 67 

Parts of Speech 71 

Classes of Nouns 76 

Common and Proper Nouns 77 

Collective, Abstract, Material, and Verbal Nouns 80 

Properties of Nouns 82 

Number , 83 

Formation of the Plural 84 

Gender 93 

Person 102 

Case 107 

Formation of the Possessive 109 

Declension of Nouns Ill 

Classes of Adjectives 113 

Descriptive and Definitive Adjectives 114 

Properties of Adjectives 117 

Comparison of Adjectives 117 

Formation of the Degrees of Comparison 119 

Articles 124 

Classes of Verbs 127 

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 128 

Properties of Verbs . . 134 

Tense 135 

Mood. 144 

Voice 151 

Person and Number 155 

Regular and Irregular Verbs 156 

Conjugation of Verbs 158 

Conjugation of Irregular Verbs 163 

Defective and Impersonal Verbs 169 

Participles 173 

Classes of Adverbs 178 

Comparison of Adverbs 181 

Personal Pronouns 182 



6 CONTENTS. 



Compound Personal Pronouns 185 

Relative Pronouns 186 

Compound Relative Pronouns 189 

Interrogative Pronouns 190 

Adjective Pronouns 191 

Relations of Prepositions 194 

Classes of Conjunctions 195 

Interjections 198 

Rules of Syntax 199 

Sentences 199 

Subject and Predicate 200 

Terms in Syntax 203 

The Article 204 

Parsing 211 

The Noun— Nominative Case 212 

Possessive Case 216 

Objective Case 220 

Objective Case Adjunct 222 

Objective Case Restrictive 224 

Objective Case Subject 226 

The Appositive 227 

The Predicate 230 

The Adjective 234 

The Verb 244 

The Tenses 249 

The Moods 251 

The Infinitive 252 

The Participle 256 

The Adverb 261 

The Pronoun 265 

The Relative 267 

The Preposition 271 

The Conjunction 274 

The Interjection 277 

Words used as different Parts of Speech 280 

Punctuation 283 

Letters 285 

Words 286 

Rules for Spelling 287 

Capital Letters 288 



THE CHILD'S GRAMMAR. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Grammar teaches us how to use our language 
properly in speaking or writing. 

It treats of words, and the relations they 
sustain to each other, and shows the principles 
according to which we should use these words 
in expressing our thoughts. 

The words of our language are divided into 
several classes, called parts of speech,. 

There are eight parts of speech, as follows: 
Noun, Pronoun, 

Adjective, Preposition, 

Verb, Conjunction, 

Adverb, Interjection. 

Look at the picture on the next page. This 
picture and the exercise under it illustrate the 
use of words belonging to one part of speech; 
namely, the noun. 

(7) 



NOILNS. 




NOUNS. 



1. How many things you can see in this picture ! First, 
here is a boy at play with his bat and ball. His dog waits 
for him to knock the ball, and then runs and brings it to 
him again. A kite lies on the ground by his side, but its 
string is broken. 

2. On the left you see a tall tree, and upon one of the 
branches sits a bird near its nest full of eggs. Farther off 
is a house with two tall chimneys, and a Aorse and wagon are 
passing along the road near it. A little girl is sitting 



NOUNS, 



9 



upon the door-step, with a book in her hand, and a kitten 
by her side. 

3. Upon the river there is a s/iip with tall masts and white 
sails, and a little 6oa£ floats upon the water near the shore. 

4. Then there is a weM, with its curb and sweep and 
bucket; a woman drawing water, and an ox drinking at the 
trough; and a great many other things. 

5. How many things there may be in a single picture ! 
and how many more there must be in the w T hole world ! 

Now these things must all have names, or we could not 
talk about them, or tell one another what things we meant. 
So you see that names are the first things we must learn 
in speaking or writing. 

Now I am ready to give you your first lesson in 
Grammar. 

LESSON I. 

What must w T e first learn about in grammar? 

Names. 

What are names? 

Names are words 

which represent things. 

Will you mention three 
names of things seen in 
this picture ? 

Boy, bat, ball. 

What does the word 
noun mean? 

The word noun means name. 
Since then these words, boy, bat, ball, are names, what 
may we call them ? 

Nouns. 




10 



NOUNS. 




Do you see any thing else in the picture? 
Yes; there is something lying in the corner, 
What is it called? 
A hat. 

What then is hat, and why ? 
Hat is a noun, because it 
is a name of something. 

What are all names called in 
grammar? 

All names. are called nouns. 

Mention three nouns, names of things in this picture. 
Why are they nouns? 

Is cane a noun? Why? Can you see a cane in the 
picture? Point it out. Is tree a noun? Point out a tree. 
Why is tree a noun? Is soon a noun? 

Soon is not a noun. 

Why not? 

It is not a name of any thing. 

Did you ever see a soon! Is into a noun? Why? 
Can you point out a thing called 
an intot Mention some other 
words which are not nouns. 

Under , near, if, quickly. 

Why are these words not 
nouns ? 

Because they do not rep- 
resent things. 

The girl sits upon the chair. Which of these words 
are nouns? Why? Can you see the things in the picture? 





NOUNS. 11 

Which are not nouns? Why? Can you see a sits in 
the picture? Can you see an upon? Is there any thing 
called a the in the picture ? 

The boy holds up his cap, and 
the dog j umps after it. Which of 
these words are names of things 
in the picture ? What are these 
words then? Why? 

Is holds a name of any thing ? 
Is holds a noun? Why? Is and a noun? Why? Will 
you now tell me what a noun is? 

A noun is the name of something. 

Boat is the name of something; is boat a noun? 

Boat is a noun, because it is a name. 

Dog is a name of an animal; is dog a noun? The bird 
sings; is sings a noun? Why? Which word is a noun? 
Why? 

LESSON II. 

What does noun mean? What is a noun? In the 
picture on the eighth page mention all the nouns which 
are names of persons. 

Boy, girl, man, woman. 

Mention all the nouns which are the names of animals. 

Dog, bird, kitten, horse, ox. 

Do you think you could mention all the nouns which 
represent things in the picture? Try it. First take the 
boy alone. 

There are his eyes, nose, mouth, ears, hair, teeth, 

tongue, head, hands, fingers, nails, legs, feet, toes, 

and ever so many more. 



12 NOUNS. 

Are these words nouns ? 

Yes; they are nouns, because they are names 

of parts of the boy. 

Are there any other nouns which represent things 
connected with the boy 1 

Yes; there are his cap, coat, buttons, trousers, 
vest, collar, shoes, stockings, etc. 

Are these words nouns also? 

They are nouns, because they are names of 
parts of the boy's clothing. 

Tell in the same manner the names of things connected 
with the dog; the horse; the ship; the bird; the tree; the 
house; the wagon. 

Do you not think there are a great many nouns? 
Mention three nouns, names of things used in eating. 

Which of these words are nouns : now, knife, eats, fork, 
see, spoon, by, where, cup? 

Which of these words are nouns : nose, upon, eye, so, 
here, mouth, open, chin, pretty, is, cheek? Why are they 
nouns ? 

How many nouns among the following words : was, to, 
every, sometimes, has, over, likes? Why? 

The first letters of the following nouns, taken in order, 
spell the name of something used in school: say, peach, 
up, ear, for, under, nose, our, so, cup, which, ice, never, 
was, lion. What is the name? 

The nouns are peach, ear, nose, cup, ice, lion. 

Their first letters spell pencil. 

The following nouns by their first letters spell the name 
of a boy: great, gun, here, though, eagle, done, owl, has, 
rope, the, gold, except, on, earth. What is the name? 



NOUNS. 13 

These spell the name of a girl: but, apple, as, sweet, 
lip, going, of, iron, be, quick, cat, have, very, evening. 
What is the name ? 

These spell the name of a fruit: should, aunt, truly, 
by, plum, save, pin, than, leg, on, elephant. What is 
the name? 

These spell the name of something to drink: went, 
cheese, old, with, oak, here, foot, find, in, fool, what, 
earth, now, eel. What is the name? 

These spell the name of something to eat: soft, butter, 
then, some, rogue, fills, elbow T , ax, shines, on, door. What 
is the name? 

These spell the name of something which every body 
wants: if, man, go, swift, oil, find, negro, about, no, ear, 
into, yoke. What is the name ? 

Exercise 1. 

Write five nouns of each of the following classes: 

1. Persons. Example: Man, girl, sister, Charles, king. 

2. Quadrupeds. 9. Parts of a house. 

3. Birds. 10. Parts of your body. 

4. Trees. 11. Things in a kitchen. 

5. Plants. 12. Things to eat. 

6. Flowers. 13. Things to drink. 

7. Fruits. 14. Things made of wood. 

8. Insects. 15. Things made of iron. 

Exercise 2. 

Name the nouns in the following sentences: 

1. The boy has a dog, a bat, and a ball. 2. The ball is made 
of yarn, and covered with leather. 3. A white house stands on 
the hill, with four windows and tw T o chimneys. 4. The tree has 
a bird's nest hid among its leaves. 5. Apples, pears, peaches, 
plums, cherries, nuts, and many other fruits grow upon trees. 
6. Animals which have four feet are called quadrupeds. 7. The 
horse, cow, and sheep are very useful animals. 8. One hundred 



14 NOUNS. 

cents make a dollar. 9. The window has twenty panes of glass. 

10. The well is full of cool water, which is drawn up in a bucket. 

11. I am very sorry to hear that you have been sick. 

Exercise 3. 

Put nouns in the following "blank spaces: 

1. The .... knocks the .... with his .... ( The boy knocks 
the ball with his bat). 2. The .... sits on the .... 3. The 
.... is full of ... . 4. A ... . has four .... 5. Do you 
see the .... sailing on the .... 6. The .... aims his ... . 
at a ... . which is running on the .... 7. The .... has a 
. ... on his .... 8. Do you like .... better than . . . .? 
9. The .... draws .... from the .... in a ... . 10. My 
.... promised me a new .... if I recite my .... well. 

Exercise 4. 

Select the nouns. Their first letters, taken in order, spell one of their 
number. Which is it? 

1. Pen, was, ink, pipe, never, through, egg, shall. The nouns 
are pen, ink, pipe, egg. The answer is pipe. 

2. Pin, between, arm, soon, always, paper, writes, on, evening, 
surely, river. 

3. And, come, summer, goes, iron, does, by, sister, tree, tall, is, 
earth, whiter, sings, river, let. 

4. Went, rabbit, the, done, ox, if, under, we, bride, was, brother, 
good, like, eggs, robber. 

5. Pig, several, gay, uncle, run, puppy, swiftly, poor, pail, ask, 
what, yoke, yes, about. 

6. Swallow, sweetly, same, parrot, come, ape, high, up, raven, 
beautiful, robin, put, open, ostrich, shall, wagon, sparrows. 

7. Going, gun, shoots, gone, eagle, down, oil, flows, with, Eome, 
comes, George, for, quick, evening, bright. 

8. Lily, has, joyful, ink, lovely, lilac, also, comes, aunt, see, 
very, cousin, have. 

9. Ant, pretty, runs, lamb, twenty, lobster, sly, take, idol, even, 
goose, quietly, alligator, where, out, teeth, owl, some, lazy, rogue. 

10. My, and, cup, have, hat, and, fully, uncle, through, rope, 
church, never, under, hand, goes. 



XOUNS. 15 

11. We, cloak, most, hair, shown, were, ivory, old, chicken, 
went, could, king, brightly, writes, emperor, save, nose. 

12. Few, rat, every, where, horse, ink, us, begin, night, before, 
opossum, he, until, camel, same, in, elephant, elegant, through, 
rhinoceros, discover, ox, now, certainly, squirrel. 

Exercise 5. 

Select the nouns. Their first letters spell another noun of the same 
class. What is it? 

1. Sing, poplar, shines, blue, ash, have, laurel, happy, think, 
maple, sure. The nouns are poplar, ash, laurel, maple. The 
answer is palm. 

2. High, cow, together, no, antelope, likes, mule, forever, if, 
elephant, save, lion. 

3. Could, we, cotton, here, oats, under, therefore, been, rice, 
grow, nuts, gently. 

4. Fond, head, and, speaks, eyes, blew, arms, ribs, so, gave, 
tongue, over. 

5. Among, crow, twelve, take, owl, nevertheless, nightingale, 
only, duck, ostrich, might, the, robin. 

6. Eapidly, mulberry, brings, alder, nowhere, his, pine, grace- 
fully, linden, behold, elm, lofty. 

7. No, sweet, apple, young, brightly, cherry, hear, orange, 
sometimes, raspberry, fell, over, nuts, old. 

8. With, coffee, fresh, toward, ham, bad, onions, waits, cabbage, 
commonly, oil, you, any, lettuce, after, took, asparagus, tea, drank, 
eggs, when, should. 

9. There, turnip, within, if, orange, around, melon, sold, apple, 
high, tomato, tell, grow, onion. 

10. Came, shirt, above, why, hat, sings, overcoat, so, that, once, 
earrings, always, stockings. 



l'J 



ADJECTIVES. 




ADJECTIVES. 

1. In this picture you see two horses. Are they alike! 
No; one is a white horse, and the other is a black one. 
There are two houses on the left; one is a large house, the 
other is a small one. 

2. See those two groups of boys; do you think they are 
alike? Those three boys who are studying their lessons 
under the tall tree are good boys. What kind of boys 
would you call those ugly fellows who are fighting there? 
They are certainly bad boys. 



ADJECTIVES. 17 

3. What kind of a girl is that one who is picking up 
the old man's cane for him ? Is she not a polite girl ? Yes ; 
and she is a pretty girl too. 

4. Those two trees both bear apples. The tall tree bears 
large sweet apples, but the low tree bears small sour ones. 

5. A little girl once asked her father to buy her a dress. 
He bought her a fine one, but when he showed it to her 
she was not pleased with it. "Why do you not like it?" 
said her father. "You asked me to buy you a dress, and 
here it is. I am sure it is pretty." "Oh," said the little 
girl ; ' ' but I wanted a red dress, and you have bought a 
blue one!" 

6. So you see, boys and girls, that things are not all 
alike. In the picture there are different horses, different 
boys, houses, trees, apples, etc., and the little girl we have 
just been reading about found that all dresses were not 
red. 

Now these words, horses, boys, trees, dresses, etc., are all 
nouns, because they are names of things, you know ; but 
if we wish to tell what kind of things we mean, we must 
put another word with the noun to describe it, or show 
w T hat kind it is. Thus our little girl should have said she 
wanted a red dress. 

Your next lesson is about these words which must be 
used with nouns when we wish to describe them. They 
are Adjectives. 

LESSON III. 

When a little girl says she wants a red dress what does 
she use the word red for? 

To tell what kind of a dress she wants. 

To what is the word red joined ? 

To the noun dress. 



18 ADJECTIVES. 

What does the word adjective mean? 

It means joined or added to. 

What then would you call the word red above, and why ? 

An adjective, because it is joined to the noun 
dress to describe it. 

What does to describe a thing mean ? 

To tell what kind of a thing it is, so that Ave 
may know something about it. 

Will you illustrate what you mean by describing a thing? 

When a boy says he has a dog we do not 
know much about it; but when he says he has 
a pretty little black dog we know almost as much 
about the animal as if we saw it. 

Which words in your illustration describe the dog? 

Pretty, little, and black. 

What then are these words, and why? 

Adjectives, because they are joined to the noun 
dog to describe it. 

When I say, A white horse, 
what is white f Why? 

These apples are sweet, but 
those are sour. Which words 
are adjectives here, and why? 

Sweet and sour, because 

they describe the noun 

apples. 

The sly fox wants to catch the fat hen. Which of 
these words are adjectives? Why? Which are nouns? 
Why? 




ADJECTIVES. 19 

The old hen has five little chickens. Which of these 
words are adjectives? Which are nouns? Why? 

When I say, Give me a good apple, why do I use the 
word good, and what is it? 

To describe the apple which I want; and it is 
therefore an adjective. 

When I say, Give me that apple, why do I use the word 
that? 

To define the noun apple , or point out what 
apple I want. 

What then would you call that? 

That is an adjective, because it is joined to a 
noun to define it. 

What does to define a thing mean? 

To show tvhich thing or hotv many things are 
meant. 

When I say, Take these books, what is these, and why? 

These is an adjective, because it is joined to 
the noun books to define it. 

Give me three pens. What is three f Why? Will you 
now give the definition of an adjective? 

An adjective is a word joined to a noun to 
describe or define it. 

Give other examples of adjectives describing nouns. 

A bad boy; a cross dog; a new dress; wild 
horses. 

Give examples of adjectives defining nouns. 

This hat; many men; few days; such houses. 



20 



ADJECTIVES. 




LESSON IV. 

How can you determine whether any word is an adjective 
or not? 

Join it to some noun, the name of a person, 
place, or thing; if it will describe or define the 
noun, it is an adjective. 

Is rough an adjective? 

Rough is an adjective, be- 
cause it will describe a noun; 
as, "A rough road." 

Is narrow an adjective? Why? 
What noun will narrow describe? 
Did you ever see an into thing? Is into an adjective? 

Into is not an adjective, because it will not 
describe or define any thing. 

The fat pig has the big pot. What two nouns are rep- 
resented in the picture? What hind of a pig is it? What 
kind of a pot? What are the words fat and big then? 
Why? Is has an adjective? Why? 

Is black an adjective? Why? Mention several nouns 
which black will describe. 

Black hair; black eyes; 

a black hat; a black horse. 

Is sweet an adjective? Why? 
Mention a sweet thing. Is pretty 
an adjective? Mention some- 
thing which is pretty. 

Name two adjectives describing the horse in the picture. 
One defining the boys. Name two adjectives describing 




ADJECTIVES. 



21 




your school-house. Three describing an apple. Two de- 
scribing your book. 

Which of these words are adjectives: when, hot, day, 
is, little, sings, bird, blue, was, 
bad? Why are they adjectives? 
What nouns will each describe? 
Which are nouns? Why? 

Name tw r o adjectives describing 
the load in the picture. Name one 
defining the horses. One defining 
the wheels. Two describing the 
horses. 

Which of these words are adjectives: cap, now, are, 
shall, on, go, goose, nowhere? Why? 

The first letters of the adjectives among the following 
words spell another which describes an apple: not, mad, 
of, easy, could, but, lazy, soon, lame, can, not, old, lamp, 
am, weak. What is the adjective? 

What kind of bubbles are these in the picture? 

They are round bubbles. 

What then is round f Why? Name another adjective 
which will describe the bubbles. Are they heavy or light f 

The first letters of the adjec- 
tives among the following words 
describe the boys: world, went, 
yellow, tell, odd, catches, ugly, 
into, when, noble, studies, great, 
ocean. What is the adjective? 

The first letters of the follow- 
ing adjectives define the bubbles: 
women, go, fair, burns, old, tem- 
pest, fire, useful, here, never, entertains, rich. What is 
the adjective? 




99 



ADJECTIVES. 



The first letters describe some dogs: barks, sly, hair, 
neat, with, able, poor, went, pretty, up, idle, loves, sour, 
could, not, heavy. What is the adjective? 

The first letters describe some boys: if, long, city, 
goes, angry, times, zealous, girl, were, young. What is 
the adjective? 

The first letters describe you, I hope: boy, hard, not, 
is, affectionate, without, pale, run, on, proud, under, 
youthful. What is the adjective? 

Exercise 6. 

Name the adjectives, and tell what nouns they describe or define : 
1. I see a black horse and a white horse in the picture. 2. That 
old man is poor and lame and blind. 3. I live in a red house with 
green blinds. 4. The little boat can not sail so fast as the great 
ship with its tall masts and broad sails. 5. I know a sweet young 
girl with mild blue eyes. 6. This splendid store belongs to a rich 
merchant. 7. Studious boys will make wise men. 8. In cold 
weather we wear thick and warm clothing. 9. The bright stars 
shine in the dark night. 10. Iron is a hard metal, but lead is a 
soft one. 11. The well is deep, and the water is cool. 12. The 
road was rough, and the old horse soon became weary. 13. A 
hungry beggar, old and lame, with clothes all dirty and ragged, 
called at that elegant mansion to beg a small morsel, but a savage 
dog drove him away. 

Exercise 7. 

Put appropriate adjectives in the following blank spaces : 
1. The .... tree bears .... apples (The tall tree bears sweet 
apples). 2. Do you like a . . . . apple better than a . . . ■. one? 

3 boys quarrel, but .... boys do not. 4. The elephant 

has .... ears and a . . . . trunk. 5. The soldiers wear .... coats 
with .... buttons. 6. London is a ... . city. 7. My .... coat is 
made of ... . cloth. 8. This .... boy gave his ... . sister a . . . . 

apple. 9. The rose is a ... . and .... 

flower. 10. This .... banker owns a .... house, and rides in 
an ... . carriage drawn by two horses. 



ADJECTIVES. 



23 



Exercise 8. 

Join an adjective to each of the following nouns: 

Example : Mellow apple. 

22. Day. 



1. Apple. 

2. Man. 

3. Peach. 

4. Tree. 

5. Stars. 

6. Pig. 



7. Night. 

8. Weather. 

9. Girl. 

10. Dress. 

11. House. 



12. Ox. 

13. Paper. 

14. Book. 

15. Hill. 

16. Horse. 



17. Sky. 

18. Sun. 

19. Street. 

20. Moon. 

21. Flower. 



23. Fire. 

24. Bird. 

25. Pen. 

26. City. 



Exercise 9. 

Join a noun to each of the following adjectives: 



1. Lofty. 

2. New. 

3. Eipe. 

4. Cross. 

5. Naughty. 
G. Big. 

7. Tall. 

8. Ugly. 



9. Cold. 

10. Blue. 

11. Angry. 

12. Sweet. 

13. Young. 

14. Snappish. 

15. Pretty. 



Example: 

16. High. 

17. Beautiful. 

18. Studious. 

19. Sour. 

20. Foolish. 

21. Brilliant. 

22. Happy. 



Lofty mountain. 

23. Tender. 

24. Graceful. 

25. Thick. 

26. Kind. 

27. Strong. 

28. Coarse. 

29. Gentle. 



Exercise 10. 

Select the adjectives. Their first letters taken in order spell one of 
their number. Which is it? 

1. Once, happy, men, able, loves, by, unequal, times, green, 
fir, hang, haughty, tender, save, youngest. The adjectives are 
happy, able, unequal, green, haughty, tender, youngest. The answer 

is HAUGHTY. 

2. Long, words, studies, idle, tall, sky, shines, tame, clouds, 
little, upon, rain, eager. 

3. Sing, proud, drives, rapid, unto, where, old, proper, having, 
envious, too, enter, ruddy. 

4. With, brown, tree, can, roguish, old, begin, wild, school, if, 
new, chair, runs. 

5. King, uncivil, ruler, here, sly, battle, evil, gun, has, fond, 
name, useful, winds, sweep, loud. 

6. Saucy, fox, excellent, steals, naughty, sleep, senseless, but, 
eager, long, backward, to-morrow, easy, never, alas, sure, and, 
sober, also. 



24 ADJECTIVES. 

7. Poor, shall, dress, ugly, hope, rude, learns, book, purple, 
large, pencil, empty, room. 

8. Fat, pig, old, lives, but, round, grunts, gray, now, earnest, 
grass, will, tight, forgetful, waiter, untrue, lean, animal. 

9. Angry, walks, modest, life, goes, icy, street, amiable, lady, 
yes, bare, line, lame, horse, excellent. 

10. Tardy, commence, heavy, try, indolent, in, about, rocky, 
fights, solid, on, sun, thirsty, ride, young, man. 

Exercise 11. 

Select the adjectives and the nouns. The first letters of the nouns 
spell another noun, and those of the adjectives spell an appropriate 
adjective to describe the noun. What are they? 

1. Feel, star, tame, although, top, went, rough, her, ox, unkind, 
shames, room, elegant, seeks, yoke. The adjectives are tame, 
rough, unkind, elegant; the nouns are star, top, ox, room, yoke. 
The answer is tktje story. 

2. Here, big, have, sun, round, was, trap, idle, gentle, arrow, 
should, hard, does, rifle, tender, as. 

3. We, pencil, smooth, unless, old, egg, fine, anchor, which, 
carpet, thin, fought, hero. 

4. They, foot, until, homely, island, makes, robber, if, fre- 
quently, oaken, enemy, teacher, true. 

5. Negro, becomes, deaf, for, inch, so angry, ever, garden, sees, 
rotten, into, heart, keen, swiftly, temple. 

6. Goes, pure, forever, rich, globe, reaches, ink, eloquent, tough, 
room, think, timid, lake, upward, yellow. 

7. Foolish, commence, fort, not, liquor, rugged, active, officer, 
week, gay, shines, rainy, receives, education, amiable, religion r 
narrow, learns, tall. 

8. A, brave, sells, soldier, travels, king, lazy, took, useful, 
under, easy, year. 

9. There, rude, dunce, them, earnest, soon, raccoon, deep, till, 
ear, grows, sky, any, where, to, stove. 

10. How, brief, by, bay, lucky, beneath, odd, apple, besides, 
obedient, track, somewhere, delightful, table, lioness, young, our- 
selves, England. 

11. Buy, farm, because, was, knavish, eat, ignorant, rock, as, 
Indian, us, noble, empire, noise, damp, we, diamond. 



ADJECTIVES. 25 

Exercise 12. 

Put an adjective in the first blank space, and an appropriate noun 
in the second: 

1. A will study his lesson (A good boy will study 

his lesson). 2. This has a . . . : .... 3. My .... 

.... is made of 4. The walks with a cane, 

and a leads him. 5. This bites every body. 

6. Paris is a 7. I hope you will be a when 

you grow up. 8. There is a sitting on a 

and singing a. 9. If you are a , you will 

become a 

Exercise 13. 

Form nouns from the adjectives and fill the blanks below: 

I. By adding the syllable ness and often changing the spelling. 

1. "White. 2. Sweet. 3. Black. 4. Hard. 5. Loud. 6. Heavy. 

7. Coarse. 8. Swift. 9. Kough. 10. Bright. 

I. The whiteness of the snow. 2. The .... of the stone. 

3. The of the horse. 4. The of the sun. 5. The 

of the cloth. 6. The of the road. 

II. By adding th and often changing the spelling: 

1. Long. 2. Deep. 3. Wide. 4. W x arm. 5. Young. 6. True. 
1. The length of the rope. 2. The of the summer. 

3. The of the well. 4. The of the story. 

Form adjectives from the nouns and fill the blanks below: 

I. By adding the syllable less and often changing the spelling: 

1. Care. 2. Tear. 3. Sleep. 4. Leaf. 5. Father. 6. Pity. 

I. A careless boy. 2. A . . . . night. 3. The .... trees. 

4. A . . . . judge. 

II. By adding the syllable ful and often changing the spelling: 
1. Play. 2. Hurt. 3. Cheer. 4. Health. 5. Fear. 6. Beauty. 
1. A playful kitten. 2. A ... . girl. 3. A ... . calamity. 

4. The lady. 

III. By adding the syllable ish and often changing the spelling: 
1. Boy. 2. Kogue. 3. Self. 4. Girl. s/Fever. 6. Fop. 

1. A boyish trick. 2. A . . . . fellow. 3. His .... manners. 
4. A . . . . plan. 



26 



YEKBS. 







VERBS. 



1. Look at these two pictures. What is the difference 
between them? In the picture on this page the boys are 
quiet ; horses standing idle ; bird sitting still on the tree ; 
girl sitting on the ground, as still as the hoop lying by her 
side ; dog, cat, pig, and geese asleep or dead — no appear- 
ance of action. 

2. Here are boys, horses, a girl, a bird, a dog, and 
many other things — nowis enough certainly. They are 
good boys too, and tvhite and black horses, a little dog, and 



VERBS. 



27 




a pretty girl ; so we have adjectives here also ; but still the 
things are not doing any thing, not acting. What is the 
matter? 

3. Now look at this picture. The boys play, the bird 
flies in the air, the horses run, and the little dog harks 
at the cat, which scampers up the wall as fast as she can 
go. The brook flows and bubbles along over the rocks, the 
little girl rolls her hoop, the tree waves its branches, the 
pig roots up the ground, the hen scratches for seeds, and 
even the old gander hisses at the ox, which drinks at the 
trough. Every thing seems to be doing something. 



28 VERBS. 

4. You have already learned that nouns tell us the 
names of things, and adjectives describe the nouns, or tell 
us what hind of things they are ; but to tell what things 
do, or what actions they perform, we must have another 
kind of words. These words are verbs, and I will tell you 
about them in the next lesson. 

LESSON V. 

When I say, The boy plays, what do I use the word 
plays for? 

To tell what the boy does. 

What is the word which tells what a thing does called 
in grammar? 

A VERB. 

What then would you call plays in the sentence, The 
boy plays, and why? 

Plays is a verb, because it tells what the boy 

does. 

Flies is a word which tells what a bird does ; what then 
is flies f What word will tell what a dog does ? 

A dog barks. 

What then is barks f 

Barks is a verb, because it tells what a dog 

does. 

The bird sings. What is sings? Why? When I say, 
The wind blows and the rain falls, which w r ords are verbs ? 
Will you mention several things that a horse does? 

A horse runs; a horse draws a cart; a horse 
eats hay; a horse neighs ; and a horse sometimes 
kicks. 




VERBS. 29 

Which of these words tell the acts which the horse 
performs? What then are these words? The man ivalks. 
Which word is a verb here? Why? We say, The horse 
has a mane; The horse looks strong. Which of these words 
are verbs? 

Has and looks are 
verbs. 

Do these words express 
any action which the horse 
performs, like the other 
verbs which we have seen ? 

They do not. 

For what purpose then 
are they used? w8$^^ 

They show what is said of the horse. 

The rose smells sweet. What is said of the rose here? 

That it smells sweet. 

What then is smells, and why? 

Smells is a verb, because it tells what is said 
of the rose. 

Do all verbs then express an action? 

No; some verbs only show what is said of a 
thing. 

In the sentence, The lion roars, what does the word 
roars do ? 

It tells what is said of the lion, as well as 

what he does; it is therefore a verb. 

In the sentence, The child sleeps, what is the word sleep j 
used for? What then is sleeps f Why? 



30 



VERBS, 



Will you now define a verb? 

A verb is a word which tells what a thing 

does, or what is said of it. 

The gander hisses, and the ox drinks. What are hisses 
and drinks 1 Why? Will you give other examples of 
verbs ? 

The pig squeals ; the girl dances ; the clog looks 

cross; the apples are sour; I own a knife. 

How many verbs can you find in the description of the 
picture on page 27? 

LESSON VI. 

What is a verb? How can you determine whether any 
word is a verb or not? 

Put some noun before it; if it can tell what 
the thing does, or what is said of it, it is a 
verb. 

Is cries a verb, and why? 

Cries is a verb; because we may put a noun, 

as child, before it, and it can tell what the child 

does; thus, "The child cries." 

Is writes a verb? Why? Is talks a verb? Why? Is 
until a verb? 

Until is not a verb; because it can not tell 

what any thing does, or what is said of any 

thing. 

Is then a verb? Why? Is though a verb? Why? 

Which of these words are verbs: goes, learns, which, 
calls, but, if, shines? Why are they verbs? Which are 
not verbs? Why? 



VERBS. 



31 







Write a verb telling what a swan does. One telling 
what a cat does. One telling something which is said of 
grass. One telling what fire does. 

Write a noun, the name of an 
object in the picture, and a verb 
telling what it does. Do the 
same for the other two objects. 

Is barks a verb? Why? What 
can bark f Is after a verb ? Can 
any thing after t Is catch a verb ? 
Why? 

How many verbs can you mention which tell what the 
fox does in the picture? Tell what the fox will do with 
the hen when he carries her to his den. What then is eatf 
What is kill! Why? 

Write two verbs which will tell what the boy is doing. 
One telling what the dog is doing. Is it not a sly fox? 
Is sly a verb? What is sly! Why? 

Write a verb telling something of wind. Two telling 
something of a farmer. 
Two telling something of 
a soldier. 

Which of the following 
words are verbs: gives, 
sweet, tells, travels, swift, 
boat, into, sinks, water, 
deep, soon? Which are 
nouns ? Why ? Which are 
adjectives? Why? Which 
are neither nouns, adjec- 
tives, nor verbs? 

Write an adjective describing the man in the picture, 
and a verb telling what he does. Write the same for the 
monkey. 




32 



VERBS. 




LESSON VII. 

Select the verbs among the following words : with, talks, 
him, reads, which, only, opens, hand, tells, unto, shines. 
Their first letters spell a verb 
which tells what a horse does. 
What is the verb? 

The verbs are talks, 

reads, opens, tells, shines. 

The answer is trots. 

The first letters of the follow- 
ing verbs tell what a hog does : 
some, gives, every, roars, horse, understands, before, needs, 
ugly, by, tries, without, sees. What is the verb? 

The first letters of the following verbs tell what bad 
boys do: shoots, slow, works, near, all, eats, whatever, no, 
asks, tree, receives, not. What is the verb? 

The first letters of the following verbs tell what silly 
girls do : one, grieves, four, invents, home, gives, beautiful, 
her, gets, listen, often, pretty, enters, old. What is the 
verb ? 

Select the nouns and verbs among the following words : 
very, sleeps, it, boat, waits, organ, 
inquires, yard, nips, little, grinds, 
star. Their first letters, respect- 
ively, spell another noun and verb 
appropriate to each other. What 
is the sentence? 

Select the adjectives, nouns, and 
verbs among the following words : 
sells, fool, lame, likes, angry, es- 
sence, eats, land, zealous, earns, liberty, young, prays, 
oath, says, wealth. Their first letters, respectively, spell 




VERBS. 



33 



an adjective, a noun, and a verb which describe this picture. 
What is the sentence? 

Exercise 14. 

AY rite appropriate verbs with the following nouns: 

1. Wolf. Example: Wolf howls. 

2. Eire. 6. Bird. 10. Soldier. 14. Merchant. 

3. Grass. 7. Lady. 11. Teacher. 15. Army. 

4. Time. 8. Night. 12. Servant. 16. Lightning. 

5. Clouds. 9. Ox. 13. Scholar. 17. Thunder. 



Exercise 15. 

Write appropriate nouns with the following verbs: 

1. Whistles. Example: Wind whistles. 

2. Writes. 5. Snarl. 8. Swing. 11. Patters. 14. Bites. 



3. Marches. 

4. Works. 



6. Minds. 

7. Jingles. 



9. Limps. 
10. Melts. 

Exercise 16. 



12. Whisper. 

13. Kisses. 



15. Buzz. 

16. Mend. 



Name the verbs, and tell what nouns perform the action : 

1. The cat catches mice. 2. The squirrel eats nuts and acorns. 

3. The moon shines, and the stars twinkle. 4. The boy knocks 
the ball, and the dog brings it to him. 5. The horse kicked the 
pig, and the pig squealed. 6. A good pupil loves and obeys his 
teacher. 7. The lady sings and dances. 8. This scholar reads, 
spells, writes, ciphers, and studies grammar. 9. I went to the 
city and bought a new book. 10. Fishes swim in the sea, and 
ships sail upon it. 11. Sophie has a new dress, and she looks very 
pretty. 12. The boy rides the horse, and his dog follows on foot. 
13. The water flows over the dam, and turns the millstone which 
grinds the wheat. 

Exercise 17. 

Put appropriate verbs in the following blank spaces: 

1. The dog .... at the cat, and she ... . upon the wall (The 

dog barked at the cat, and she ran upon the wall). 2. John .... 

into the house and .... the door. 3. The deer .... over the fence. 

4. The hunter .... the fox. 5. The rat ... . the cheese, but the 

3 



34 VERBS. 

boy .... him in a trap. 6. The dog .... the boy, and the boy .... 
him for it. 7. My sister .... and .... upon the piano. 8. The 
farmer .... the ground and .... the wheat. 9. The fire .... the 
fuel and .... our food. 10. The sun .... in the east and .... in 
the west. 11. The old bird .... seeds and .... them to her young 
ones. 12. The lame man .... with a cane, which he .... in his 
right hand. 13. The woodman .... the trees which .... in the 
forest. 14. The boys .... at ball ; one of them .... the ball, 
another .... it with his bat, and a third one .... it. 

Exercise 18. 

Put a noun in the first blank space, and an appropriate verb in the 
second : 

1. The the squirrel (The dog caught the squirrel). 

2. The little her hoop. 3. These their kites. 

4. The into his hole. 5. This large sweet 

apples. 6. My in a brick house. 7. The 

wood in the forest, and the it home. 8. These .... 

.... blue coats. 9 in the sea, and in the 

air. 

Exercise 19. 

Select the verbs. Their first letters spell one of their number. Which 
is it? 

1. Bool^s, raise, few, more, enter, about, fade, the, omit, school, 
while, reform, pretty, our, make. The verbs are raise, enter, fade, 
omit, reform, make. The answer is reform. 

2. Carry, noun, where, add, three, times, take, lovely, if, catch, 
any, hear, before. 

3. Him, grinds, truly, inquire, gathers, willing, but, giggle, 
once, let, whose, exclaim. 

4. Bravely, tells, each, agree, animals, wise, tattle, boys, and, 
teach, either, learn, good, things, earns. 

5. Over, thinks, general, one, recites, army, opens, trots, tree, 
very, save, few. 

6. Where, reckon, often, expel, paper, some, feel, if, explain, 
lamp, refer. 

7. Please, life, so, rests, high, expects, bold, since, prepare, late, 
appears, runs, street, poor, enjoy. 



VERBS. 35 

8. Send, now, book, aids, forever, tries, wagon, invites, well, 
satisfy, find, likely, to, yields. 

9. Gold, attends, fairly, treads, nigh, useful, throws, such, rise, 
for, elegant, attract, not, come, talk, behind. 

10. Many, comes, great, owes, meets, what, now, make, sweet, 
few, enters, then, nibbles, grass, commence, again, soon, eat. 

Exercise 20. 

Select the adjectives, nouns, and verbs. Their first letters, respectively, 
spell an adjective, a noun, and a verb, appropriate to each other. Find 
the sentence thus formed. 

1. They, street, beautiful, sit, never, hold, rich, idle, umbrella, 
intend, gay, neglects, before, heavy, expect, night, true, speak. 
The adjectives are beautiful, rich, idle, gay, heavy, true; the nouns 
are street, umbrella, night; the verbs are sit, hold, intend, neglects, 
expect, speak. The sentence is bright sun shines. 

2. What, clear, spills, which, needs, roguish, day, asks, oldest, 
rise, ounce, never, saucy, lend, grape, who, spoil, but, silly. 

3. Great, see, to, slave, though, cup, odious, travel, heaven, 
you, oval, understand, oak, do, log, apron, dim, certainly, yawn, 
rogue, below, supper. 

4. Across, knee, with, sore, nest, chew, homely, unites, and, 
angry, tremble, imp, raw, food, unless, shoot, on, engine, poor. 

5. Give, loud, perhaps, honey, return, able, uses, without, officer, 
needs, zealous, think, gold, strike, youthful. 

6. At, fig, weep, foolish, when, lily, accidental, improves, orange, 
twist, wood, idle, hide, elbow, rude, rope, enters, ship, receive. 

7. Town, quickly, refuse, large, hill, owes, uncle, older, allow, 
then, ugly, negro, drunkard, rob, deep, excellence, shakes, room. 

8. Leave, them, hot, curtain, ask, home, angelic, properly, 
ignorance, upsets, proud, grow, peevish, lemon, hate, yellow, 
shut, donkey. 

9. There, women, kind, creep, ignorant, happen, owl, expects, 
nice, rabbit, dark, desk, extends, now, rides, shop. 

10. Spend, innocent, uses, mankind, new, choose, dull, complains, 
ear, unsafe, sober, endures, thick, earns, rapid, noise, idle, old, digs, 
ugly, through, saucy. 

11. Sea, bad, try, time, went, easy, inquire, nips, awful, alum, 
urgent, tall, keeps, idle, lets, fine, useful, rag, enter, limber, say. 



36 



ADVERBS. 




ADVERBS. 



1. See the two men walking in the picture. One is an 
old and lame man, the other is young and strong. They 
both walk, but they do not walk alike; the old man walks 
slowly, but the young man walks rapidly. 

2. Here are several horses too ; some of them trot gently 
along, while others go swiftly. The river flows smoothly 
and quietly, while the little brook runs swiftly and noisily. 
The sprightly squirrel upon the fence moves nimbly from 
post to post, while the old fat hog moves so clumsily that 
he seems about to tumble into the water. 



ADVERBS. 37 

3. So too the sun and moon both shine, but they do 
not shine in the same manner; the sun shines brightly, the 
moon shines mildly. 

4. You have learned that nouns tell us the names of 
things, as man in the picture ; that adjectives describe the 
things, as old and lame man, young and strong man; and 
that verbs tell us what the things do, as walk. Thus the 
old man walks, and the young man walks; but now we 
wish to tell how each one walks, and so we use another 
class of words; as, slowly and rapidly. 

5. These new T words will be the subject of your next 
lesson. They are called Adverbs. 

LESSON VIII. 

When I say, The old man walks slowly, w T hat do I use 
the word slowly for? 

To tell Jioiv the old man walks. 

To what word is slowly joined? 

To the verb walks. 

What does the word adverb mean ? 

Adverb means joined or added to a word. 

What then would you call the word slowly in the 
sentence, The old man ivallcs slowly, and why? 

Sloivbj is an adverb, because it is joined to the 
verb walks to tell how the action is performed. 

For w r hat purpose are adverbs joined to verbs? 

To modify their meaning. 

What does to modify mean when applied to adverbs? 

To tell the manner, place, time, or degree of a 
thing. 



38 



ADVERBS. 



The little bird sings sweetly. Which word here ex- 
presses the manner in which the bird sings? 

The word sweetly. 

What then is siveetly, and why? 

Sweetly is an adverb, because it is joined to the 

verb sings to modify its meaning. 

The scholar studies diligently. What is diligently 1 ! 
Why? The river flows smoothly and quietly. Which are 
the adverbs here? Why? What do all these adverbs 
express ? 

They express manner. 

Will you give other examples of adverbs expressing 
manner '? 

The teacher entered quickly ; the scholar recites 

promptly ; he slept soundly, and awoke suddenly. 

When I say, The woman walks there, what does there 
express ? 

It tells where the woman 
walks. 

What then is the word there f 

There is an adverb, because 

it is joined to the verb walks 

to modify its meaning. 

The old tower stands yonder. 
What is yonder! Why? What do these adverbs express? 

They express place. 

Give other examples of adverbs which express plaee. 

He comes here; they went away ; tvhere is 

the boy? 




ADVERBS. 39 

When I say, The man comes now; he conies often; what 
do the words now and often express? 

They express time. 

What are these words? 

Now and often are adverbs, because they modify 
the verb comes. 

Give other examples of adverbs which express time. 

He visits me frequently ; I saw him lately ; he 

never studies. 

Mary is a very pretty girl. What is the word very used 
for here? 

To tell how pretty Mary is, or in what degree 
she is pretty. 

What then is very, and what does it modify? 

Very is an adverb, and modifies the adjective 
pretty. 

Give other examples of this kind. 

This apple is perfectly ripe ; my book is almost 

new ; his coat is too old. 

The horse runs quite rapidly. What is the word quite 
used for here? 

To tell how rapidly the horse runs. 

What is quite, and what does it modify? 

Quite is an" adverb, and modifies the adverb 
rapidly. 

What then may an adverb modify besides a verb? 

An adverb may sometimes modify an adjective 
or another adverb. 



40 ADVERBS. 

Will you give other examples of adverbs modifying 
other adverbs? 

She writes very neatly; look more carefully; 
we ran too swiftly. 

Will you now define an adverbs 

An adverb is a word joined to a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb to modify its meaning. 

LESSON IX. 

What is an adverb f How can you determine whether 
any word is an adverb or not? 

Join it to some verb, adjective, or adverb, and 
see if it can modify its meaning. 

Is foolishly an adverb, and why? 

Foolishly is an adverb, because it can be used 

to modify a verb; thus, "He talks foolishly." 

Is playfully an adverb? Why? Is soon an adverb? 
Why? Can you do any thing soonf Is though an adverb? 

Though is not an adverb ; 

because it can not be used 

to modify a verb, adjective, 

or adverb. 




Is with an adverb? Why? 
Name an adverb which can mod- 
ify the verb shines. Name two 
which can modify speaks. Name 
one which can modify the adjective cold. Name one which 
can modify the adverb quickly. 

Name two adverbs modifying something done in the 
picture. 



ADVERBS. 



41 



Which of these words are adverbs: gayly, from, if, 
swiftly, barks, soon, the, never, was, very, runs, boy, fast? 
Why are they adverbs ? Which are not adverbs ? Why ? 

The first letters of the following adverbs spell another 
which will modify the verb runs: boys, fairly, some, again, 
rain, shortly, he, comes, truly. What is the adverb? 

The adverbs are fairly r , again, shortly, truly ; 

and the adverb spelled is fast. 

The first letters of the following adverbs tell how you 
recite, I hope: unto, wisely, though, eagerly, and, play, 
lightly, been, luckily. What is the adverb? 

The first letters of the following adverbs tell how you 
do not behave, I hope : him, brightly, can, if, anxiously, go, 
deeply, lazily, forget, old, youthfully. What is the adverb? 

Select the adjectives, nouns, 
verbs, and adverbs among the 
following words : if, gently, 
king, long, idiot, see, idle, 
pass, ardently, with, tender, in- 
stantly, obeys, trumpet, tame, 
turkey, rides, empire, lame, 
name, easy, try, loosely, into, 
yonder, soul. Their first letters respectively spell an ad- 
jective, a noun, a verb, and an adverb, which put together 
form a sentence that describes this picture. What is the 
sentence ? 

Exercise 21. 

Write appropriate adverbs with the following verbs: 




1. 


Boasts. 




Ex 


a.mple: He boasts loudly. 


2. 


Behaves. 


7. 


Sing. 


12. Escaped. 


17. Labors. 


3. 


Awake. 


8. 


Cries. 


13. Groans. 


18. Punishes 


4. 


Call. 


9. 


Complains. 


14. Howl. 


19. Moans. 


5. 


Sighs. 


10 


Forgets. 


15. Jabbers. 


20. Beads. 


6. 


Drives. 


11. 


Burns. 


16. Eats. 


21. Studies. 



42 ADVERBS. 

Exercise 22. 

Write appropriate verbs with, the following adverbs: 

1. Awkwardly. Example: He dances awkwardly. 

2. Ably. 7. Beautifully. 12. Carefully. 17. Cheerfully. 

3. Playfully. 8. Fairly. 13. Greatly. 18. Dimly. 

4. Sincerely. 9. Politely. 14. Fondly. 19. Happily. 

5. Darkly. 10. Soon. 15. Often. 20. Never. 

6. Sometimes. 11. Aloft. 16. Away. 21. Par. 

Exercise 23. 

Name the adverbs, and tell what verbs they modify: 
1. He treated me kindly. 2. The horse galloped swiftly over 
the plain. 3. The wind blows violently, and it is very cold. 

4. Your copy is written badly, but Jane's is written quite well. 

5. Read slowly, and pronounce the words distinctly. 6. Study 
your lesson carefully till you understand it thoroughly. 7. If 
you write your words carelessly, you can not read them easily. 
8. The cat steps softly, and springs suddenly upon the rat. 9. The 
dog barked furiously at the squirrel, which ran nimbly up a tree. 
10. The pig moves lazily, but he eats greedily. 11. He visited 
me once, but he never came again. 12. The fox looked wistfully 
at the fat hen, and jumped eagerly toward the roost, but he fell 
violently to the ground, and hurt his leg severely. 

Exercise 24. 

Put appropriate adverbs in the following blank spaces: 
1. The lady dances .... (The lady dances gracefully). 2. The 
ship sails .... over the lake. 3. They ran .... down the hill. 
4. The sun shines .... 5. If you study . . . . , you will learn 
.... 6. You should treat every body .... 7. The soldiers 
fought .... and .... defeated the enem}^. 8. Grace dresses .... 
and behaves .... 9. Speak your words .... and we shall .... 

understand them. 10 stands the church; we shall reach 

it ... . 11. I slept .... all night. 12. It rained .... last night, 
and the streets are .... muddy. 13. Did you .... see peaches 
. . . . large as these? \i. The thief crept .... up to the house, 
opened the door . . . ., entered .... into the chamber, .... pocketed 
a gold watch, and then ran 



ADVERBS. 43 

Exercise 25. 

Put a verb in the space marked 1, and an adverb in that marked 2: 
1. The dog . . 1 . . . . 2 . . at the beggar (The dog barked fiercely 
at the beggar). 2. The little bird . .1. . . .2. . 3. The stars 
. .1. . . .2. . in the night. 4. The little lambs . .1. . . .2. . in 
the fields. 5. The snow . . 1 . . . . 2 . . upon the ground. 6. The 
boys . . 1 . . . . 2 . . over the ice, and sometimes they . . 1 . . . . 2 . . 
and . .1. . themselves . .2. . 7. The balloon . .1. . . .2. . into the 
air. 8. The scholar . . 1 . . his lesson . . 2 . pj and his teacher . . 1 . . 
him . .2. . 9. The watchmen . .1. . the thief . .2. ., and . .1. . 
his hands . .2. . with a rope. 

Exercise 26. 

Select the adverbs. Their first letters spell one of their number. 
Which is it? 

1. Which, hardly, with, move, alike, come, richly, will, soon, 
find, harshly, but, lately, one, lonely, youthfully. The adverbs 
are hardly, alike, richly, soon, harshly, lately, youthfully. The 
answer is harshly. 

2. Youth, twice, instantly, noble, was, gently, though, here, 
gives, tightly, can, get, luckily, and, yet. 

8. Go, aptly, life, greatly, we, commence, again, sure, inward, 
that, full, now, could. 

4. Recently, lives, him, always, rarely, sees, eagerly, many, 
lightly, shall, yearly, through. 

5. Agreeably, went, far, for, thrice, excellent, elsewhere, rightly, 
show, whence, few, afterward, roughly, they, earth, deeply, were, 
beautiful. 

6. Study, aside, that, saucily, will, intensely, shines, cold, dimly, 
flies, earnestly. 

7. Already, travels, kind, forth, remain, afar, what, they, 
rudely, tell. 

8. You, lastly, might, ably, prove, somewhere, wind, happy, 
there, thought, lightly, find, youthfully. 

9. Along, sings, them, peacefully, try, apart, care, really, any, 
time, therein. 

10. Who, truly, call, once, common, generally, talk, easily, 
together, contain, here, hand, true, eagerly, loves, recently. 



44 ADVERBS. 



Exercise 27. 

Select the adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverbs. Their first letters, 
respectively, spell an adjective, a noun, a verb, and an adverb, which 
form an appropriate sentence. What is it? 

1. Rainbow, safely, dark, mildly, finish, easy, often, instrument, 
openly, voice, earnest, let, eye, tenderly, obey, rope, hence, pretty, 
lazily, sand, wait, yearningly. The adjectives are dark, easy, 
earnest, pretty; the nouns are rainbow, instrument, voice, eye, rope, 
sand; the verbs are finish, let, obey, wait; the adverbs are safely, 
mildly, often, openly, tenderly, hence, lazily, yearningly. The sen- 
tence is DEEP RIVERS FLOW SMOOTHLY. 

2. Deeply, sun, gentle, seem, instantly, church, lately, hero, tie, 
immediately, old, orphan, uphold, gallantly, lamp, ever, obedient, 
nearly, divide, tightly, arrow, dumb, lovingly, rogue, yearn, shame, 
yet, which. 

3. Forget, brave, fun, rosy, letters, sometimes, organ, add, 
word, innocent, earth, oddly, great, dig, once, ruler, holy, now, 
enter, storm, thick. 

4. Captain, there, kind, pass, onward, horn, let, gayly, incorrect, 
ivory, entirely, leather, neat, ask, truly, hither, duty, equally, rug, 
dizzy, recently, elegance, yields, noon. 

5. Pride, consider, tipsy, lightly, observe, uncle, active, pork, 
again, meet, ripe, tamely, idleness, drowsy, limb, eat, eagerly, 
ship, young. 

6. Gladly, scholar, swear, thin, angrily, home, loudly, lightly, 
ascend, angry, afterward, ignorance, never, poet, loud, twice, 
inquire, laughingly, lose, slave, youthfully, long. 

7. Dear, finely, lisp, idle, gentleman, engage, instructor, lazy, 
abroad, impolite, ask, ribbon, green, roams, earnest, sweetly, lake, 
new, star, neighs, terribly, tiny. 

8. Whale, vainly, do, innocently, vain, often, apple, amiable, 
alters, lazily, virgin, sly, excellently, seize, never, thick, thickly, 
luckily, ear, heave, snake, yet. 

9. Friend, cling, now, robin, tall, idleness, heals, rough, eel, 
night, earnestly, darkness, unkind, sky, arrive, vividly, needs, 
health, govern, ever, iron, easy, explain, poetry, settle, richly. 

10. Fondly, imperfect, servant, lay, mild, often, moral, owl, old, 
improve, rarely, ever, uncle, violently, rich, vanish, leaf, elegantly, 
tall, story, angry, explain, rudely, lazy. 



ADVERBS. 45 

Exercise 28. 
Put a noun in the space marked 1, a verb in 2, and an adverb in 3 : 
1. The little . .1. . . .2. . . .3. . in the tree (The little bird 
sings sweetly in the tree). 2. This young . . 1 . . ..2.. ..3.. upon 
the piano. 3. Little . .1. . . .2. . candy . .3. . 4. The . .1. . 
. .2. . . .3. . down the hill. 5. Sunshine and showers make the 
. .1. . . .2. . . .3. . 6. The dog . .2. . . .3. . at the . .1. . 
7. The . . 1 . . ..2.. ..3.. upon the smooth iron track. 8. The 
..1.. ..2.. ..3. . over the sea, and the . .1. . ..2.. ..3.. 
against the . . 1 . . 

Exercise 29. 

Put an adjective in the space marked 1, a noun in 2, a verb in 3, 
and an adverb in 4: 

1. The . .1. . . .2. . . .3. . his lesson . .4. . (The good scholar 

studies his lesson diligently). 2. My . .1.. ..2.. ..3.. ..4.. 

upon the piano. 3. The . .1. . . .2. . . .3. . . .4. . in the sky. 

4. The ..!.. ..2.. ..3.. ..4.. with his cane, but the . . 1 . . 

..2.. ..3.. ..4.. without one. 5. That . . 1 . . ..2.. ..3.. 

..4.. 6. The.. 2.. .,3.. . .4. .down the. .1. . ..2.. 7. The 

. .1. . . .2. . . .3. . . .4. . every day. 8. The . .1. . . .2. . 

. .3. . . .4. . 9. . .1. . . .2. . . .3. . . .4. . 

LESSON X. 

REVIEW. 

How many kinds of words have you now learned, and 
what are they? 

Four: nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 

What is a noun? 

A noun is a name of any thing; as, boy, horse, 
tree, Charles, London. 

What is an adjective? 

An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to 
describe or define it; as, a sweet apple; a tall man; 
many horses. 



46 ADVERBS. 

Why do you call apple, man, and horses nouns, and 
sweet, tall, and many adjectives? 

Because apple, man, and horses are names of 
things; and sweet, tall, and many are joined to 
them to describe or define them. 

Give other examples of nouns with their adjectives. 

Good boys; modest girls; fragrant flower; this 
year; some money. 

What is a verb? 

A verb is a word which tells what a thing 
does, or what is said of it; as, horses run; birds 
sing ; grass grows. 

Which words here are the verbs, and why? 

Run, sing, and grows are verbs, because they 
tell what the things — horses, birds, and grass— 
do, or what is said of them. 

Give an example of a noun with an adjective describing 
it, and a verb telling what it does. 

Cross dogs bite; little birds sing; large ships 
sail; merry girls laugh. 

What is an adverb? 

An adverb is a word joined to a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb to modify its meaning; 
as, pigs eat greedily. 

Which word is the adverb here, and why? 

Greedily is the adverb, because it is joined to 
the verb eat to modify its meaning. 



ADVERBS. 47 

Give other examples of the same kind. 

Cats walk softly ; soldiers fight bravely; gas 

burns brightly. 

Will you now give examples of a noun with its adjec- 
tive, a verb telling what it does, and an adverb modifying 
the verb, all together? 

Little dogs bark spitefully; tall pines wave 

gracefully; kind words never die. 

Exercise 30. 

Tell what the italicized words are, and why: 

1. The moon gives light by night. 

2. The horses run, and snort, and kick up their heels. 

3. Black bears, fierce wolves, and other wild animals live in 
the thick forest. 

4. The hog walks lazily, grunts gruffly, and eats greedily. 

5. The stream turns the wheel, the wheel turns the heavy stone, 
and the stone grinds the corn. 

6. Farmers plow their ground in the spring. 

7. The good shepherd carefully tends his sheep. 

8. A naughty boy, who climbed his neighbor's apple-tree to 
steal apples, fell and broke his leg. 

9. The squirrel ran nimbly up the tree, picked off a nut w T ith his 
sharp teeth, and then slipped swiftly down again, and scampered 
away to his hole in an old log. 

10. The earth is round, and like a ball 
It swings amid the air; 
The deep blue sky surrounds it all, 
And stars shine brightly there. 

Exercise 31. 

Put a noun in the space marked 1, an adjective in 2, a verb in 3, and 
an adverb in 4: 

1. How . .4. . the moon . .3. . (How softly the moon shines). 
2. Good . . 1 . . . . 3 . . their parents. 3. The ox . . 3 . . . . 1 . . 
4. The . . 1 . . tolls : . 4 . . 5. The . . 1 . . are very . . 2 . . since the 



48 ADVERBS. 

rain. 6. The . .2. . merchant . .3. . in a . .2. . house, and rides in 
a . .2. . . .1. . 7. Kain . .3. . the . .1. . and makes the grain 
. . 3 . . . . 4 . . 8. The night was very . . 2 . . and the poor . . 1 . . 
. . 3 . . His way. 9. The . . 1 . . . . 3 . . the money, and . . 3 . . away 
with it, while the . .1. . slept . .4. . 10. The . .2. . hen . .3. . her 
brood . .4. . under her . . 1. . 11. The boys . .3. . their kite when 
the . .1. . . .3. . 12. This . .2. . girl has two . .2. . . .1. . in 
a . .2. . cage, and they . . 3. . very . .4. . 13. Tall . .1. . from 
. . 2 . . acorns . . 3 . . 14. My . . 2 . . sister has . . 2 . . . . l . . and 
. .2. . eyes. 

Exercise 32. 

Write an adjective, a verb, and an adverb with each noun so as to 
make a sentence: 

1. Girl. Example: The young girl spoke modestly. 

2. Horse. 4. Squirrel. 6. Eiver. 8. Ship. 10. Soldier. 

3. Stars. 5. Lambs. 7. Clouds. 9. Brook. 11. Children. 

Exercise 33. 

Write a noun, a verb, and an adverb with each adjective so as to make 
a sentence: 

1. Dark. Example: The dark cloud rose slowly. 

2. Bright. 4. Noble. 6. "Wise. 8. Kind. 10. Idle. 

3. Lame. 5. Sick. 7. Honest. 9. Beautiful. 11. Industrious. 

Exercise 34. 

' Write a noun, an adjective, and an adverb with each verb so as to 
make a sentence: 

1. .Works. Example: The old farmer works industriously. 

2. Writes. 4. Bites. 6. Dances. 8. Flies. 10. Grows. 

3. Speaks. 5. Shine. 7. Sings. 9. Study. 11. Burns. 

Exercise 35. 

Write a noun, an adjective, and a verb with each adverb so as to make 
a sentence: 

1. Valiantly. Example: The brave army fought valiantly. 

% Softly. 5. Sadly. 8. Neatly. 11. Never. 

3. Gracefully. 6. Gayly. 9. Pleasantly. 12. Again. 

4. Sweetly. 7. Nobly. 10. Often. 13. Now. 



PRONOUNS. 



49 







PRONOUNS. 

1. We have now learned the four principal kinds of 
words ; let us see if we can tell a story with them. We 
must use nouns for the 7iames of things, you know ; adjec- 
tives to tell w r hat kind of things they are ; verbs to tell what 
they do; and adverbs to tell the manner, 'plaee, or time in 
which they do any thing. Well let us try. 

2. In the picture is Tom Day. Tom has a big hat on 
Tom's head, and a long cane with Tom. Tom is playing 
doctor. 

• 3. There is a girl too with a doll. The girl fears the 
girl's doll is sick ; so the girl shows the girl's doll to Dr. 
Tom, and Tom feels the doll's pulse. 

4. Now this sounds very awkward, does n't it ? Let 
us see if we can not improve it; thus: 

5. In the picture is Tom Day. He has a big hat on his 
head, and a long cane with him. He is playing doctor. 

6. There is a girl too with a doll. She fears her doll 
is sick ; so she shows it to Dr. Tom, and he feels its pulse. 

7. Do you not think this sounds better? Let us see 
what makes the difference. 

4 



50 PRONOUNS. 

8. You observe that in the fifth verse, instead of re- 
peating the noun Tom, I use the little words he, his, and 
him. In the sixth verse for girl I use she and her, and 
for doll, it. 

9. These little words are used for the nouns, and rep- 
resent them. They are shorter to speak, and make our 
language sound much more agreeable. 

10. These words are called Pronouns, and you will 
learn about them in your next lesson. 

LESSON XL 

Mary has a book, and Mary is getting Mary's lesson. 
How r can I tell this without repeating Mary so often ? 

Mary has a book, and she is getting her 

lesson. 

What words have you used instead of Mary? 

The words she and her. 

What do these little words, she and her, stand for? 

They stand for the noun Mart/. 

What does the word pronoun mean? 

Pronoun means for, or' in place of, a noun. 

What then would you call these words she and her? 

Here comes Frank ; Frank -^^^^ ^^ / a 

has Frank's dog with Frank. :^^^tt.^^fc^_ ^^^W 
What words may I use instead ^^^^SB^^HB|fc.- 

The words he, his, and ^^^S^BHHp^^'" 
him; thus. Here comes Frank; he has his dog 
with him. 



PRONOUNS. 51 

What then are the words he, his, and him, and why? 

He, his, and him are pronouns, because they 
stand for the noun Frank. 

Henry's sister loves him because he is kind to her. 
Which words here are pronouns? For what nouns do 
they stand? 

I have a kite, but the kite has lost the kite's string. 
What word may I use to stand for kite? 

The word it; thus, "I have a kite, but it has 
lost its string." 

What then are the words it and its, and why? 

Here is a slate, but it has no frame. For what noun 
does it stand? 

The scholars are coming ; the scholars have the scholars' 
books with the scholars. What words may I use here for 
scholars t 

They, their, and them; thus, "The scholars are 
coming; they have their books with them." 

Which words are pronouns here, and why? 

They, their, and them are pronouns, because 
they stand for the noun scholars. 

The old hen sits patiently upon her eggs until she 
hatches them. Point out the pronouns. For what nouns 
do they stand? Cats have sharp claws. What pronouns 
here? Why? 

When I say, Here, boys; you may take your books; what 
are the words you and your, and why? 

You and your are pronouns, because they stand 
for the noun boys, or the persons addressed. 



o2 PRONOUNS. 

When John says, I have a new booh; my teacher gave it to 
me; what are the words I, my, and me, and why? 

I, my, and me are pronouns, because they stand 
for the noun John, or the person speaking. 

When a party of boys say, We are going to see our cousin; 
come with us; what are the w T ords we, our, and us, and why? 

We, our, and us are pronouns, because they 

stand for the noun boys, or the persons speaking. 

Will you now define a pronoun? 

A pronoun is a word which stands for a noun. 

LESSON XII. 

What is a pronoun f Name the pronouns in the fol- 
lowing sentence: The workmen carry their dinners with 
them. 

For what do pronouns stand? 

Pronouns stand for nouns. 

When I say, Give vie your booh, for what noun does the 
pronoun your stand? 

It stands for the name of the person who is 
spoken to; thus (addressing John or any other 
person) , "Give me your book." 

In the same sentence what noun does me stand for? 

It stands for the name of the person speaking; 
thus, "Give me (James) your book." 

What then may you observe of the noun for which a 
pronoun stands? 

The noun is often understood. 



PRONOUNS, 



53 




Name the pronouns in the following sentences : Here is 
Jane with her new carriage. She and her sister Alice are 
giving their cousin a ride in it. They want him to let the 
doll ride, but he seems to object. 
For what noun does it stand? 
For what theyf For what he! 

I have a new knife ; my father 
bought it for me when we were 
in the city. For what noun 
does it stand? For what met 
For what wet 

Come with us, girls; w T e will wait for you. What is 
ust Why? For what noun does it stand? What is wet 
For what noun does you stand? 

In the following blank spaces put pronouns standing for 
nouns represented in the picture : 

Here is Tray with .... friend Tabby 
.... dinner. When there is 
not enough for both of ... . 
.... lets .... eat as much 
as .... wants before .... 
touches .... 

Will you now repeat all 
the pronouns which you have 
learned ? 

He, his, him; she, her; they, their, them; it. 

its; you, your; I, my, me; we, our, us. 



are eating 




Exercise 36. 

Name the pronouns and the nouns for which they stand: 

1. The dog barked at the boy, and bit him. 2. This little girl 

has a pet bird, and she loves it dearly. 3. She feeds the bird, and 

it sings for her. 4. James asked his father to lend him his knife. 

5. These boys are going to fish ; they have their hooks and lines. 



54 PRONOUNS. 

and carry their dinner with them. 6. Grace has a new hat, but it 
is too small for her. 7. The ox is not swift, but he is strong. 
8. The old cat saw a bird, and jumped after it, but she missed her 
aim, and did not catch it. 9. The squirrel is fond of nuts; he 
climbs the tree, picks them from its limbs, and lays them up in 
his hole for winter. 10. We love our pupils, and they love us. 

Exercise 37. 

Put a pronoun in each of the blank spaces: 

1. The old cat caught a bird and killed .... (The old cat 
caught a bird and killed it). 2. The mouse bit the boy's finger, 
and .... let ... . go. 3. The boy worried the cat, and 
scratched .... with .... sharp claws. 4. The horse is a noble 
animal, and .... should treat .... kindly when .... is old 
5. Tell .... sister .... want .... to come and see . . . 

6 parents nourished .... when .... were young, and . . . 

should cherish .... when .... are old. 7. Good scholars obey . . . 
teachers, and .... teachers love .... 8. If ... . meet the boys 
tell am waiting for .... 

Exercise 3S. 

Put a noun in the space marked 1, and a pronoun representing it in 2: 
1. The dog ran after the . .1. . and worried ...2. . (The dog 
ran after the cat and worried her). 2. The waves dashed against 
the . . 1. . and . .2. . sank. 3. This . .1. . has a fine . .1. . and 
. .2. . rides in . .2. . 4. . .1. . has a little . . 1. . and . .2. . loves 
. .2. . dearly. 5. These . .1. . have caught some . .1. . and . .2. . 
are carrying . . 2 . . home. G. The tall . . 1 . . waves . . 2 . . branches 
in the wind. 7. The blind . . 1. . is led by . .2. . little daughter, 
who is very kind to . . 2 . . 8. These . . 1 . . have been grazing, and 
now . .2 . . are lying down and chewing . .2. . cuds. 

Exercise 39. 

Write a sentence with each of these pronouns, using a noun to which 
it may refer: 

1. She. Example: That girl is Minnie Carrol; she is my cousin. 

2. His. 5. It. 8. I. 11. We. 14. Our. 

3. Me. 6. Him. 9. They. 12. Your. 15. TTs. 

4. He. 7. Her. 10. You. 13. Them. 16. My. 



PREPOSITIONS 



55 




PREPOSITIONS. 

1. See these men rowing in a boat. There is a pond, 
and by the pond are some boys, who throw stones at the 
frogs. One frog sits upon a stump, another leaps into the 
water. In the distance a horse jumps over the fence, 
while the lazy pig crawls through it into the field. A big 
dog sits on the log, and a squirrel crouches slyly under it. 

2. The men row the boat with their long oars, and it 
comes rapidly toward the shore. 

3. The sun sets behind the mountain, and a dark cloud 
floats above it. 



56 PREPOSITIONS. 

4. Now what are these little words, in, by, at, upon, 
with, toward, etc., which I have used? They are not 
nouns, for they are not names of things; they are not 
verbs, for they do not tell us what things do; nor yet 
are they adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Let us see 
what they are used for. 

5. "A big dog sits on the log." The w T ord on is used to 
show the relation, or connection, between the dog's sitting 
and the bg; as, he sits on the log; not under it, nor beside 
it. "The men row in a boat." The word in shows the 
relation between the men's rowing and the boat. And so 
of all the others; they are used to show some relation 
between a verb and some other word in connection with 
which the act of the verb takes place. 

6. These little words are Prepositions. They will be 
presented in the next lesson. 

LESSON XIII. 

When I say, The frog sits upon the stump, for what 
purpose do I' use the word upont 

To show the relation between the frog's sitting 
and the stump. 

Where is it placed? 

It is placed before the noun stump to connect 
it with the other related word, sits. 

What does the word preposition mean? 

Preposition means placed before. 

What then may we call such w T ords as upon, and why? 

Prepositions, because they are placed before 
words to show their relation to some words pre- 
ceding. 



PREPOSITIONS, 57 

Suppose I say, The frog sits under the stump; what is 
under, and why? 

Under is a preposition, because it is placed 
before stump to show its relation to the verb sits. 

Can you name any other relation in which the frog 
might sit in reference to the stump? 

Yes ; he might sit before the stump, behind the 

stump, beside the stump, upon the stump. 

Are these words, before, behind, beside, and upon, also 
prepositions ? 

Before, behind, beside, and upon are prepositions, 
because they show the relation between sit and 
stump. 

The horse jumps over the fence. Does over show the 
relation between any words here? What then is overt 

The pig crawls through the fence? What is through f 
Why? 

The boys throw stones at the frog. What preposition 
here, and why? 

At is a preposition, and shows the relation 

between throiv and frog. 

The rain falls from the clouds upon the earth. What 
is from f Why? What is upon? 

Between what words does upon show the relation? 

Upon shows the relation between falls and 
earth, because the rain falls upon the earth. 

Will you now define a preposition f 

A preposition is a word placed before a noun 
or pronoun to show the relation between it and 
some other word. 



oS 



PREPOSITIONS. 




LESSON XIV. 

What does preposition mean? What is a preposition! 
In the sentence, The boys sail upon tlie pond, what is upon! 
What takes place upon the pond? 

Sail upon the pond. 

Sail upon ivhatf 

Upon the pond. 

What then are the words between 
which upon shows the relation? 

Sail and pond. 

The boy pushes the boat off with a pole. What is withf 
Between what words does it show the relation ? 

The sun sets behind the mountain, and the clouds float 
above the mountain. Which words are prepositions here? 
Between what words do they show the relation? 

Name two prepositions w T hich may show T the relation 
between sit and fire. 

We sit around the fire ; we sit beside the fire. 

Name a preposition showing the relation between write 
and pen. Name two w T ords between which aeross may show 
the relation. 

He sivam across the stream. 

Name two words between which 
against may show the relation. 

The boys climb the tree after 
apples. What is after here? 

Write another sentence about 
the picture containing the prepo- 
sition under. Write one containing the preposition on. 
One containing ivith. One containing into. One contain- 
ing up. One containing of. 




PREPOSITIONS. 59 



Exercise 40. 

Name the prepositions and the words between which they show the 
relation : 

1. The cat climbed up the wall. 2. The boys slide down the 

hill upon their sleds. 3. The little girl sits on a stool by the fire. 

4. John knocked the ball through the window. 5. The pig crawled 

under the fence into the field. 6. The. carriage passed over the 

bridge which extends across the river. 7. There is no rose without 

a thorn. 8. I bought the book which is in my desk for a dollar. 

9. The church stands at the foot of the street. 10. The boys 

wandered along the borders of the forest, looking for berries. 

11. Charles sits beside me on the same bench. 12. The waves 

dash against the ship with great violence. 

Exercise 41. 

Put appropriate prepositions in the following blank spaces: 
1. The book lies .... the desk (The book lies upon the desk). 
2. The woodman cut his foot .... an ax. 3. The stars are .... 
the clouds. 4. There is a bird's nest .... that tree, almost hidden 
.... the leaves. 5. This street extends .... the river .... the 
park. 6. The cars are driven .... steam .... the iron track. 

7 the hill rushed the carriage. 8. My house stands .... the 

church and the river. 9. The squirrel slipped .... a log to get 
away .... the dog. 10. James bought six oranges .... the store, 

and divided them .... his sisters. 11 the tough shell 

the nut lies a sweet kernel. 12. The river flows .... the lake, 
.... the valley, .... the dam, .... the bridge, .... the ocean. 

Exercise 42. 

Supply appropriate words between which the prepositions may show 
the relation: 

1. The river .... into the ... . (The river flows into the lake). 

2. The lamp .... upon the 3. The old hen .... on her 

4. The boy .... up the ... . after some .... 5. Charles .... his 

orange between his two .... 6. John .... his ball through the 

.... into the ... . 7. Boys .... down the ... . upon their .... 

8. He ... . with .... until .... 9. Down the .... so swift I 

. . . ., over the ... . and over the ... . 10. The horse .... over 



60 



PREPOSITIONS. 



the 11. 

. . . ., and he . 

the traveler . 



The frog . . 

. . . into the . . . . 

, . . him with his 



on a . . . . ; the boys .... stones at 
. 12. The dog .... at the , and 



Exercise 43. 

Write a sentence, using each preposition, with appropriate words 
between which it may show the relation: 

1. About. Example: The boys lingered about the door. 

2. Over. 5. Amidst. 8. Beyond. 11. Of 

3. Upon. 6. Round. 9. Among. 12. After. 

4. From. 7. During. 10. "With. 13. Behind. 

Exercise 44. 

Select all the classes of words you have yet learned. The first letters 
of each word, taken in order, spell another of the same class as itself, and 
these words rightly arranged form a sentence full of wisdom. What is the 
sentence ? Arrange the letters under their respective classes as follows : 

VERB, PRONOUN, NOUN, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, ADJECTIVE, NOUN. 



1. The eager crowd rushed into the room. 2. The active 
enemy nearly entrapped the army. 3. The royal troops met their 
opponents near the large river. 4. The youth entered and openly 
met the officer. 5. He beat the young urchin and exposed the 
trick. 6. Regard well your health. 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



About 


Among 


Beside 


From 


Round 


Until 


Above 


A round 


Between 


In 


Since 


Unto 


Across 


At 


Beyond 


Into 


Through 


Up 


After 


Before 


Bv 


Of 


Till 


Upon 


Against 


Behind 


Down 


On 


To 


With 



Along 



Below 



During Over 



Amidst Beneath For 



Past 



Toward 
Under 



Within 
Without 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



61 




CONJUNCTIONS. 



1. What a funny team this is: a horse and an ox 
drawing a cart together! 

2. Here is another team too ; a boy and girl are drawing 
a little wagon. On the left you see a man and a boy; the 
man works, but the boy plays. The boy would work if 
he was large enough, because he likes to help his father. 

3. Does that large tree bear apples or pears? I think 
they are apples, although they look like pears. 

4. The old hen shelters her chickens under her wings 
while it rains, for they would get very wet and cold unless 
they were covered by her warm feathers. 

5. Do you see any new words here? What is that little 



62 CONJUNCTIONS. 

word and in the first line? We must see what it is used 
for before we can tell what it is. 

6. I might say, "A horse is drawing a cart, an ox is 
drawing a cart;" but when I wish to show that they are 
both together drawing the cart I use this new word and to 
join them together; thus, "A horse and an ox are drawing 
a cart." 

7. So I might say, "The hen shelters her chickens, it 
rains;" but if I wish to show that these two events take 
place in connection, I use the word while between the two 
groups of words to connect them together; thus, "The 
hen shelters her chickens while it rains." 

8. Thus we see that these new words, and, while, but, 
if, and some others, are used to join together words and 
groups of words to show that they are to be considered 
in connection. 

9. These words will be the subject of your next lesson. 
They are called Conjunctions. 

LESSON XV. 

When I say, The horse and ox draw the cart, for what 
purpose is the word and used? 

To connect the words horse and ox, and show 

that they are considered together. 

What does the w T ord conjunction mean? 

Conjunction means joining together. 

What then may we call and in the above sentence, 
and why? 

And is a conjunction, because it is used to 

join together the words horse and ox. 

The horse and colt are in the pasture. What is and 
here, and why? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 63 

When I say, James or John will come, for what is the 
word or used? 

To connect James and John, and show that 
they are considered together in the assertion. 

What then is or in this sentence? 

Or is a conjunction, because it is used to 
connect the words James and John. 

The girl sings and plays. Is and a conjunction here? 

And is a conjunction; it connects the verbs sings 
and plays, and shows that the acts are performed 
by the same person. 

I visited my cousin and her 
friend yesterday. What does and 
connect here? 

Do conjunctions always connect 
single words only? 

No; they sometimes con- 
nect groups of words. 

The river flows through the valley and under the 
bridge. What does and connect here? 

It connects the groups of words, through the 

valley and under the bridge. 

She is loved because she is amiable. What is because f 
Because is a conjunction; it connects the groups 

of words, She is loved and she is amiable. 

The boy cracks his whip, and the dogs run. What is 
and! What does it connect? 

The dust flies, but the boy is not afraid. What conjunc- 
tion here? What does it connect? 




64 CONJUNCTIONS. 

Will you now define a conjunction t 

A conjunction is a word used to connect 
single words or groups of words which are to be 
considered together. 

LESSON XVI. 

What does conjunction mean? What is a conjunction f 
James has grown since I saw him last. Which word 
is a conjunction here? Why? Does it connect single 
words or groups of words? Which are they? 

Mary or her cousin will come. Does or connect single 
words or groups of words? 

It connects single words, viz., Mary and cousin. 

Give an example of or connecting groups of words. 

He travels by railroad or in his private carnage. 

Give an example of and con- 
necting single words ; connecting 
groups of words. 

Write a sentence about the 
picture containing the conjunc- 
tion and. One containing but. 
One containing because. One con- 
taining if. 

The train started before we arrived. What is before! 
What does it connect? Though he is young, he reads 
well. What does the conjunction though connect? 

The sentence means, He reads well, though he 

is young; hence though connects the two groups, 

he reads well and he is young. 

If you are studious, you will excel. What does if 
connect? 





CONJUNCTIONS. 65 

The wheel turns while the wind blows. What takes 
place while the wind blows ? 

The wheel turns. 

The wheel turns while 
what? 

While the wind blows. 

What then does the con- 
junction while connect? 

The wheel has long arms Ij§|| 
and white sails. What is 
and? What does it con- -; 
nect? 

The wheel does not turn unless the wind blows. What 
is unless? Why? What does it connect? 

The wheel turns, if the wind blows. What is if? 
If the wind blows, the wheel turns. Does this sentence 
mean the same as before ? What then does if connect here ? 

The wind blows, but the w T heel does not turn. What 
is bid? What does it connect? 

Though the wind blows, the wheel does not turn. What 
does though connect? 

The wheel turns because the wind blows. What is 
because ? Why ? 

The wind blows, therefore the wheel turns. What is 
therefore ? Why ? 

The wheel does not turn until the wind blows. What 
is until? Why? 

Will you now repeat the conjunctions which you have 
learned ? 

And, but, if, because, before, or, for, since, 

while, unless, until, although, though, that, than, 

therefore. 



66 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



Exercise 45. 

Name the conjunctions and the words or groups of words which they 
connect : 

1. The horse and cow are in the pasture. 2. The dog or the 

cat tipped over the chair. 3. Are you going to the city or to the 

country? 4. James learns fast, because he studies diligently. 

5. He did not observe me, for it was quite dark. 6. I shall go 
home to-morrow unless it rains. 7. I will go since you desire it. 
8. I was intending to go, but it rained, and I was obliged to 
remain at home. 9. Although he is young, he is very learned. 

10. This young lady desires to attract attention and to be admired. 

11. The cow gives us milk and the sheep gives us wool. 12. The 
brook, dashing down the cliffs and bubbling over the rocks, 
makes a great noise. 

Exercise 46. 

Put appropriate conjunctions in the blank spaces: 

1. He walks with a cane .... he is lame (He walks with a 

cane because he is lame). 2. Is that Charles .... John? 3. You 

will become learned .... you study. 4. Washington was a great 

.... good man. 5. Arnold was a brave general, .... not a patriot. 

6. You can not become learned .... you study. 7. "William is 
more studious .... his brother is. 8. The general heard .... the 
enemy were near, .,. . . he prepared for battle. 9. I do not know 

.... it will rain .... snow. 10 you are industrious, you 

will prosper. 11. He was rich, .... he was not happy. 12. You 
.... he may go, .... I must stay. 











Exercise 47 


• 






Write sentences with the nouns 


and conjunctions as indicated below : 


1. 


About horse 


with and. 


Ex.: The horse eats hay and corn. 


2. 


u 


COW 


a 


and. 


8. 


About tree 


with as. 


3. 


it 


dog 


a 


because. 


9. 


" stars 


" than. 


4. 


it 


man 


it 


¥■ 


10. 


" girl 


" unless. 


5. 


a 


. boy 


a 


or. 


11. 


" flowers 


" for. 


6. 


tt 


soldier 


a 


yet. 


12. 


" ocean 


" since. 


7. 


a 


ship 


» 


bat. 


13. 


" river 


" that. 



intp:rjections. 



67 




INTERJECTIONS. 



1. "0 Frank!" says his sister Clara, "just see this 
pretty bird's nest. Hush! The old bird is on the nest; 
do not let us frighten her. Ha! she has flown!" 

2. See that little boy running and shouting after the 
others. "Halloo!" says he, "wait for me." 

3. Here is a school-house, and the school is just dis- 
missed. See the boys rushing out of the door. "Hurrah!" 
they shout, "it is holiday, and we will have some fun." 

4. There on the veranda is Carrie El wood, showing her 



68 INTERJECTIONS. 

new doll to her big brother Tom. "Poh!" says Tom, 
"what do I care for a doll?" 

5. On the other side of the picture is a different scene. 
This lady is weeping at the grave of her son. "Alas!" she 
says, " my son is dead. JAme! what shall I do ? " 

6. Here are some curious words, which are quite unlike 
any that you have yet learned: Ol ha! hurrah I poh I alas! 
ah! Let us see what they are used for. 

7. Little Clara sees a pretty bird's nest, and calls out 
in her surprise, "0 Frank!" The school-boys, glad of a 
holiday, shout "Hurrah!" Big Tom El wood says, "Poh!" 
in his contempt for little Carrie's doll; and the weeping 
lady says, "Alas!" in sorrow for her son. 

8. Thus we see that these words are used to show some 
sudden feeling of surprise, of pleasure, of scorn, or of pain. 

9. These words are called Interjections ; they will be 
the subject of your next lesson. 

LESSON XVII. 

When a little girl calls out, Frank! just see this 
pretty bird's nest, for what purpose does she use the 
word Of 

To express a sudden feeling of surprise. 

When the school-boys shout, Hurrah! we have a Iwli- 
day, why do they use the word hurrah! 

To express their feeling of pleasure. 

Have these words, 0, hurrah, any connection with the 
other words of the sentence? 

No; they are merely thrown in to show the 
feelings of the speaker. 

What does the word interjection mean? 

Interjection means thrown in or between. 



interjections. 



69 



Since then these words, such as and hurrah, are 
merely thrown into the sentence, without any grammatical 
connection with the other words, what may we call them? 

Interjections. 

My bird is dead; alas! I can not play! What is alas? 

Alas is an interjection, because it is thrown into 

the sentence to express a feeling of grief. 

When I say, Pshaw I I am not afraid of a puppy, what 
does pshaio express? 

It expresses a 

feeling of contempt, cl 

What then is it? 
Oh! how cold I am! 
What is oh? Why? 
What feeling does it 
express ? 

By what sign may 
an interjection generally be known? 

By the exclamation point (!) after it; as, Oh I 
ah! alas! 

Will you now T define an interjection? 

An interjection is a word thrown into a sen- 
tence to express some feeling or emotion, and un- 
connected with the other words. 

Is fie an interjection? What feeling does it express? 
Give a sentence showing its use? 

Fie! I do not believe a word of it. 

Write a sentence about the picture containing the in- 
terjection Ol One containing bravo I One containing 
halloo I One containing ha I ha! 




70 INTERJECTIONS. 

Will you repeat the list of interjections 

0! oh! ah! alas! ho! ha! poh! pshaw! hurrah! 

halloo! huzza! hush! hist! hail! fie! bah! ahem! 

bravo! adieu! 

Exercise 48. 

Name the interjections in the following sentences. 

1. Ah! I shall never see my friend again. 2. My little bird 
is dead, alas! 3. Halloo! boys, wait for me. 4. O pshaw! I am 
too busy for such trifles. 5. Bravo ! my boy ; try it again. 6. I 
hear the deer coming, hist! 7. Poh! Tom, don't be afraid of a 
puppy. 8. O fudge! that is all nonsense. 9. Aha! old fellow, you 
are caught at last. 10. A politician. Bah! I thought as much. 

Exercise 49. 

Put appropriate interjections in the blank spaces: 

1 ! boys, the circus is coming [Hurrah! boys, the circus 

is coming). 2. My poor boy is dead, . . . .! I shall never see him 

more. 3 ! I don't believe a word of it. 4. Are you going 

to leave now ? Well, . . . . ! 5. . . . . ! I hear the robbers coming. 

6 me! what shall I do? 7. . . . .! my friend, I am glad to 

see you. 8. So you are going to Europe . . . '.? 9 ! who is 

afraid of a shadow? 10 ! there; what are you about? 

Exercise 50. 

Write a sentence containing each of the following interjections: 

1. Whew! Example: Whew ! how the wind blows ! 

2. Ah! 4. Oh! 6. Alas! 8. Fudge! 10. Poh! 12. Hush! 

3. Ho! 5. Fie! 7. Hail! 9. Bravo! 11. Hist! 13. Adieu! 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



71 



oFT 




PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. You have now learned all the kinds of words that 
make up our language. Every word you use in talking 
to one another, every word you hear, and every word you 
read in books belongs to one of the eight classes of words 
which you have just been studying. Speech, you know, is 
spoken language; and as language was spoken before it was 
written, these eight classes of words are called Parts of 
Speech. 

2. Of these classes the nouns and verbs are the most 
numerous and important ; the adjectives and adverbs are 



72 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

the next; while the pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, 
and interjections are mostly small words, and are few in 
number. 

LESSON xvin. 

How many classes of words have you now learned, and 
what are they? 

Eight; the noun, adjective, verb, adverb, pronoun, 
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 

Of how many kinds of words is our language composed ? 

Of these eight classes. 

What is language? 

The words which we make use of in speaking 
or writing. 

What is speech f 

Spoken language. 

Since language was first spoken before it was written, 
what may we call these several classes of words? 

Parts of Speech. 

How many parts of speech then has our language, and 
what are they? 

Eight; noun, adjective, verb, adverb, pronoun, 
preposition, conjunction, interjection. 

What is a noun? 

A noun is the name of a person, place or 
thing. 

Give examples of nouns. 

Man, queen, Mary, city, field, horse, tree. 



PAETS OF SPEECH. 73 

What is an adjective? 

An adjective is a word joined to a noun to 
describe or define it. 

Give examples of adjectives. 

Bright, tall, red, soft, fragrant, industrious. 

Give examples of nouns and adjectives describing them. 

Bright stars; soft peaches; fragrant flowers. 

What is a verb? 

A verb is a word which tells what a thing 
does, or what is said of it. 

Give examples of verbs. 

Walks, speaks, jumps, strikes, shines, looks. 

Will you give examples of nouns with their verbs ? 

Man walks; stars shine; grass grows. 

What is an adverb? 

An adverb is a word joined to a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb to modify its mean- 
ing. 

Give examples of adverbs. 

Swiftly, kindly, gracefully, frequently, soon, 
never. 

Will you give examples illustrating the use of adverbs? 

Runs swiftly; sings siveetly ; very good; more 
frequently. 

What is a pronoun? 

A pronoun is a word standing for, or instead 
of, a noun. 



74 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Give examples of pronouns. 

He, his, him; she, they, them; I, me, you. 

Will you give an example illustrating the use of the 
pronoun? 

The boy promised that he (i. e., the boy) would 
come. 

What is a preposition? 

A preposition is a word placed before a noun 
or pronoun to show the relation between it and 
some other word. 

Give examples of prepositions. 

At, with, from, by, on, under, through. 

Will you give an example illustrating the use of prepo- 
sitions ? 

I live in the country. Here the preposition in 
shows the relation between live and country. 

What is a conjunction? 

A conjunction is a word used to connect sin- 
gle words or groups of words which are to be 
considered together. 

Give examples of conjunctions. 

And, if, but, because, though, unless. 

Will you give an example illustrating the use of con- 
junctions? 

The horse and ox drink at the trough. He 
stays at home because he is sick. Here and con- 
nects the words horse and ox, and because connects 
the groups he stays at home and he is sick. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 75 

What is an interjection? 

An interjection is a word thrown into a sen- 
tence to express some feeling or emotion, and 
unconnected with the other words. 

Give examples of interjections. 

0! ah! alas! pshaw! fie! hail! 

Will you give an example illustrating the use of inter- 
jections? 

My father is dead; alas! what shall I do? 

Here the interjection alas is thrown into the 

sentence to express a feeling of grief. 

Exercise 51. 

What part of speech is each of the italicized words below? 

1. Birds build their nests in the trees. 2. Ships sail upon the 
ocean. 3. Flowers bloom in the meadows and on the hills. 4. The 
lion springs suddenly upon his prey. 5. The tall oak grew slowly 
from a little acorn. 6. I remained at home because it rained. 

7. Washington was great and good, therefore his name is honored. 

8. Alexander conquered the world. 9. This boy goes to school, 
but he does not study. 10. Charles's father loaned him his knife. 
11. Mary sings and plays finely. 12. If you are industrious, you 
will doubtless become rich. 13. My teacher gave me a new book. 
14. The old cat catches mice, and eats them. 15. He fell from the 
tree, and broke his leg. 16. Ah! yes; the flowers are bright and 
fair; but I, alas! am blind. 17. I shall go to the city to-morrow 
unless it rains. 18. The wind whirled the dry leaves into the air. 

19. The pig crawled under the fence, but the horse jumped over it. 

20. Many beautiful flowers grow wild in the fields. 21. Fishes 
swim in the sea, but birds fly in the air. 22. The night was very 
dark, for thick clouds obscured the moon. 23. The enemy is 
routed. Huzza! the day is ours! 



76 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 




CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

1. You have three sisters at play in the yard. If I say 
to you, "Go and tell your sister to come here;" you do not 
know whom to call, because you have more than one sister. 
If I say, "Tell Mary to come," you know whom I mean, 
and can call her without hesitation. 

2. Now sister is a noun, and so is Mary, because they 
are both names, but the name sister is common to all three of 
the girls, while the name Mary belongs to but one of them. 

3. Suppose you meet a party of boys, and do not know 
the names of any of them; what do you say when you 
wish to call one of them? You can only say, "Halloo, 
boy!" or "Come here, boy;" and the boys, of course, do 
not know whom you mean, because boy is a name common 
to all of them. But if you say, "Halloo! James, come 
here," why then James comes, because James is his proper 
name, and does not belong to all of the party, like the 
common name boy. 

4. So you see there are two Classes of Nouns. One 
class denotes persons, places, and things in general; as, girl, 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 77 

city, dog: the other denotes particular persons, places, and 
things; as, Mary, London, Beppo. 

LESSON XIX. 

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 

If you have several sisters, and I say, Tell your sister to 
come here, do you know whom to call? 

No; because I have more than one sister. 

If I say, Tell Mary to come here, you know whom I 
mean. Why? 

Because I have but one sister Mary. 

What does common mean? 

Common means general, or belonging to more 
than one. 

What does proper mean? 

Proper means ones own, or belonging to only one. 

What kind of a noun then would you call sister 'f 

Sister is a common noun, because it is a general 
name, belonging to more than one. 

What kind of a noun is Mary? 

Mary is a proper noun, because it belongs to a 
particular person. 

When I say, I live in a city, do you know where I live? 

I do not; because there are a great many cities. 

When I say, I live in Washington, do you know where 
I live? 

Yes; because Washington is the name of a 
particular city. 



78 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 



What kind of nouns are city and Washington? 

City is a common noun, because it is a general 
name ; and Washington is a proper noun, because 
it is a 'particular name. 

Will you now define a common nount 

A common noun is a general name, belong- 
ing to all objects of the same class. 

Will you define a proper noun? 

A proper noun is a particular name, belong- 
ing to an individual object. 

Give examples of common nouns. 

Girl, brother, man, city, country, mountain. 

Give examples of proper nouns. 

Lucy, Robert, Bonaparte, Paris, Europe, Sinai. 



Two, names of 



What two classes of nouns are there? 

Common nouns and proper nouns. 

Mention two proper nouns, names of boys, 
girls. Two, names of rivers. 

Name the proper nouns among 
the following words: See this little 
boy James with his dog Max. How 
Tabby puts up her back at them ! 

When you speak of boys of your 
acquaintance how do you distinguish 
them from one another? 

By their proper names, Henry, Thomas, Charles, etc. 

What kind of nouns are these? What then are proper nouns 
tised for? 

With what kind of letters should all proper nouns begin? 
With capital letters. 





CLASSES OF NOUNS. 79 

Correct the errors in the following sentences: Here are frank 
and his sister ida. Their dog tray is with them, frank was nine 
years old last June, and ida will 
be eight in September. They 
are going to visit their uncle 
scott, who lives in trenton. 

George Washington was 
born in Virginia. What is 
George Washington? 

George Washington is a 
proper noun. 

What can you observe of 
such names? 

Two or more words used 
as parts of one name form one noun; as, John Smith, 
Clara Jane Wood. 

In the sentence, Cicero teas a great orator ■, what is Cicero? 
Why? When I say, This boy will become a Cicero, what kind 
of a noun is Cicero? 

Cicero is a common noun here. 

When may a proper noun become common? 

A proper noun becomes common when it is not used to 
name the individual to which it belongs, but is made to 
include others as a class ; as, "The nation had no Washington 
to lead its armies; " "We have a Carrie in our family." 

When I say, A park in a city is a pleasant place, what is park? 
Why? When I say, J visited the Park to-day, what kind of a 
noun is Park here? 

Park is here a proper noun. 

When may a common noun become proper? 

A common noun becomes proper w T hen it is used to 
name a particular object, and does not include others of 
the class; as, Have you seen the Cavet We visited the 
Exchange. 



80 CLASSES OF NOUNS. 



Exercise 52. 



Tell which nouns are common and which proper: 
1. John Smith and his sister Mary go to school. 2. Paris, the 
capital of France, is a beautiful city. 3. The poet Homer wrote 
the Iliad. 4. Cain was the first son of Adam, and he slew his 
brother Abel. 5. My father went to Louisville in the steamer 
Swallow. 6. The Bible is the best of all books, because God is its 
author. 7. Service was held in the Cathedral on Sunday. 

Exercise 53. 

Put a proper noun in the space marked 1, and a common noun in 2 : 
1. . . l. . is taller than his . .2. . (James is taller than his 
brother). 2. Here is . .1. . at play with her . .2. . 3. . .1. . is a 
good . .2. . 4. Your . .2. . . .1. . barked at the . .2. . 5. The 
. . 1 . . is a large . . 2 . . ; it is the largest . . 2 . . in . . 1 . . 6. . . 1 . . is 
the first . . 2 . . of summer. 7. The . . 1 . . is the finest . . 2 . . which 
sails upon the . . l . . 8. A great . . 2 . . was . . l . . 

LESSON XX. 

COLLECTIVE, MATERIAL, ABSTRACT, AND VERBAL 

NOUNS. 

What other classes of nouns are sometimes reckoned? 

Collective nouns, material nouns, abstract nouns, and 
verbal nouns. 

What is a collective noun? 

A collective noun is one which denotes a collection of in- 
dividuals considered as one thing; as, army, family, number. 

What is a material noun? 

A material noun is one which denotes a substance or 
material; as, stone, salt, glass. 

What is an abstract noun? 

An abstract noun is one which denotes a quality; as, 
courage, beauty, goodness. 






CLASSES OF NOUNS. 



81 



"What is a verbal noun? 

A verbal noun is one which denotes an action or state 
of being; as, writing, hunting, deeping. 

What can you say of nouns belonging to these classes? 
The same words are often merely common nouns. 
Will you give examples? 



Collective, 
Common, 
Material, 
Common, 

Abstract, 
Common, 
Verbal, . 
Common, 



A number of pupils study grammar. 
He divided the number by two. 
This church is built of stone. 
He threw a stone at the bird. . 

Beauty is less attractive than modesty. 
This lady thinks herself a beauty. 
He was engaged in writing a letter. 
The writing was very legible. 



Exercise 54. 

Tell which nouns are common, which collective, which material, which 
abstract, which verbal : 

1. This company wear blue coats. 2. These boys have a kite 
made of paper. 3. The temple is made of marble, and is much 
admired for its beauty. 4. Chalk has the useful qualities of white- 
ness and softness. 5. He was injured by falling from his horse. 
6. My family are visiting their friends in the country. 7. The 
windows were made of glass, and the roof was thatched with 
straw. 8. The man sipped a glass of wine through a straw. 

Exercise 55. 

Put a common noun in 1, a collective in 2, a material in 3, an abstract 
in 4, and a verbal in 5: 

1. This fine . . l. . is built of . .3. . (This fine church is built 

of stone). 2. This . .2. . is armed with . .1. . 3. Never be guilty 

of . .5. .a bird's nest. 4. . .3. . is a very useful metal, on account 

of its . . 4 . . 5. A large . . 2 . . of . . 1 . . were grazing upon the . . 1 . . 

6. This young . . 1 . . is admired for her . . 4 . . 7. . . 3 . . is used 

for . . l . .; it has a very brilliant . . 4 . . 8. In spring the . . 1 . . are 

busy in . . 5 . . the ground and . . 5 . . their . . l . . 

6 



82 



NUMBER. 




<•>* ^ ^^m w* ^fofrSP 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS— NUMBER. 

1. In this picture you see a boy at play with his dog. 
Not far off are several boys with dogs. Upon the river 
there is a ship sailing alone, and farther off on the lake 
you see several ships. There is a tall tree standing by 
itself, and a single bird upon it. Near by are many trees 
filled with birds. 

2. So of almost all the things in the world there are 
more than one; and sometimes we wish to speak of one, and 
sometimes of a greater number. Henee the words which 
stand for things (nouns and pronouns) must have the 



NUMBMR. 83 

property of telling whether one only is meant, or more 
than one. 

3. This property is called Number ; it will be treated 
of in the next lesson. 

LESSON XXI. 

NUMBER. 

When I say, I see a boy at play, what part of speech 
is boyf 

Boy is a noun, because it is a name. 

How many does the noun boy denote? 

One. 

When I say, I see the boys at play, how many does boys 
denote ? 

More than one. 

What does number mean? 

Number means one or more than one. 

What is number in grammar? 

Number is that property of nouns and pro- 
nouns which tells whether one is meant or more 
than one. 

What does singular mean? 

Singular means one. 

Of what number then would you call the noun boy in 
the sentence, I see a boy at playt 

Boy is of the singular number, because it 
denotes but one. 

The ship sails upon the river. Of what number is 
shipf Why? 



84 NUMBER. 

What does the word plural mean? 

Plural means more than one. 

Of what number then shall we call the noun boys in 
the sentence, J see the boys at playf 

Boys is of the plural number, because it de- 
notes more than one. 

The ships sail upon the lake. Of what number is 
ships! Why? Of what number is lake! Why? 

How many numbers have nouns, and what are they? 

Two ; a singular number and a plural number. 

What do these numbers denote respectively? 

The singular number denotes but one; as, 
girl, tree, house. 

The plural number denotes more than one; 
as, girls, trees, houses. 

LESSON XXII. 
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

Name several nouns of the singular number. 

Boy, girl, dog, tree, book, hat. 

Name the corresponding nouns of the plural number. 

Boys, girls, dogs, trees, books, hats. 

How do these nouns differ from the former? 

In having the letter s added. 

What then is the first method of forming the plural 
of nouns? 

By adding s to the singular. 

Name the plural of lamp, chair, desk, table, horse. How 
do they form the plural? 



NUMBER. 85 

Is the plural of box formed in the same manner? 

No; the plural of box is boxes. 

How is the plural of this word formed? 

By adding es. 

Name several other nouns which form their plural in 
this way. 

Churchy churches; dish, dishes; fox, foxes; kiss, 
kisses. 

Why do you add es to these nouns instead of s only? 

Because s alone could not be easily pronounced; 
thus, foxs, dishs, kisss. 

What then is the second method of forming the plural 
of nouns? 

By adding es to the singular. 

Name the plural of ax, tax, ditch, arch, lash, peach. How 
do these nouns form the plural? 
What is the plural of leaff 

The plural of leaf is leaves. 

How does the plural of this noun differ from the 
singular ? 

The / of the singular is changed into ves in 

the plural. 

Are there any other nouns whose plural is formed in 
this way? 

Yes; loaf loaves; knife, knives; thief thieves. 

What is the third method of forming the plural of nouns? 

By changing f or fe into ves. 

Name the plural of calf, life, sheaf, self. How do these 
nouns form the plural? 



86 NUMBER. 

Do all nouns ending in / or fe form the plural in this 
manner ? 

No ; many of them simply add s according 
to the first method; as, fife, fifes; grief griefs; 
chief, chiefs ; roof, roofs ; hoof, hoofs ; gulf, gulfs. 

Name the plural of fly, lady, pony. 

Flies, ladies, ponies. 

How do these nouns form the plural? 

They change the y of the singular into ies in 

the plural. 

What is the fourth method of forming the plural of 
nouns ? 

By changing y into ies. 

Name the plural of sky, dandy, puppy, berry, county. 
Do all nouns ending in y form the plural in this 
manner ? 

No; some of them simply add s; as, day, days; 
valley, valleys ; monkey, monkeys. 

Can you tell what nouns simply add sf 

Nouns ending in y with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) 
immediately before it form their plural by adding 
s ; as, hoy, boys ; valley, valleys; turkey, turkeys. 

What nouns change the y into iesf 

Nouns ending in y with a consonant immediately 
before it change the y into ies ; as, body, bodies ; 
spy, spies ; city, cities. 

Name the plural of bay, key, joy. How is the plural 
formed ? Name the plural of party, pantry, folly How 
is it formed? 



NUMBER. 87 

Can you give the plural of man, foot, mouse? 

Men, feet, mice. 

How do these nouns form their plural? 

They form it irregularly. 

Name other nouns which form the plural irregularly. 

Woman, women; child, children; tooth, teeth; 

ox, oxen; goose, geese; mouse, mice; die, dice. 

What is a fifth method of forming the plural of nouns? 

In an irregular manner. 

Will you now repeat the five methods of forming the 
plural of nouns? 

First method: by adding s to the singular; 
as, book, books. 

Second method: by adding es to the singular; 
as, box, boxes. 

Third method: by changing the ending / or 
fe into ves ; as, calf, calves ; knife, knives. 

Fourth method : by changing the ending y into 
ies; as, lady, ladies. 

Fifth method: in an irregular manner ; as, man, 
men; foot, feet. 

Exercise 56. 

Name the plural of these nouns, and tell by what method it is formed: 
1. Hand, rock, window, star, flower, house, fence. 2. Fox, 
class, match, moss, tax, brush, witch. 3. Life, sheaf, half, calf, 
elf, thief, beef, staff. 4. Ruby, lily, cherry, study, navy, army, 
ditty. 5. Chief, proof, grief, roof, strife, turf, flag-staff. 6. Toy, 
donkey, lackey, volley, dray, buoy, alloy. 7. Goosej ox, woman, 
child. 8. Latch, enemy, nymph, arch, monarch, envoy, sylph, 
monkey, flunky, tooth, waif, wolf, ounce, gas, mouse. 




88 NUMBER. 

LESSON XXIH. 
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL (Continued). 

What is number t Name three nouns of the singular 
number. Three of the plural. .rjiifu-asr 

Write a sentence about the pic- 
ture containing a singular noun. 
One containing a plural noun. 
One containing both a singular 
and a plural noun. 

Which of these nouns are sin- 
gular: lamp, pens, books, table, 
fire, pencil, griefs, women, hand- 
kerchief, oxen, child, cart? Which are plural? Why? 
Give the plural of potato, liero, negro, alkali. 

Potatoes, heroes, negroes, alkalies. 

Give the plural of folio, cameo, nuncio, bamboo. 

Folios, cameos, nuncios, bamboos. 

What rule can you give for the plural of these nouns? 

Nouns ending in a single vozvel like potato, etc., 
add es ; nouns ending in two vowels like folio j etc., 
add s only. 

Give the plural of workman, boatman, Frenchman. 

Workmen, boatmen, Frenchmen. 

Give the plural of talisman, ottoman, German. 

Talismans, ottomans, Germans. 

What rule can you give for the plural of such nouns? 

Compounds of man in which the ending man 
retains its meaning of a man form the plural 
like man; other nouns ending in man add s. 



NUMBER. 89 

NOUNS HAVING TWO PLURALS. 

When I say, These two men are brothers, what do I mean? 

That they belong to the same family. 

"When I say, We are all brethren, what is my meaning? 

That we are of the same society. 

What two plurals then has brother? 

Brothers, of the same family; and brethren, of the same 

society. 

Are there any other nouns of this kind? 

-o , f pennies, separate coins; and 

Fenny has . . 1 r . 

I pence, meaning a sum or value. 

^y i (dies, stamps for coining; and 

{dice, small cubes for gaming. 

F' h h I fishes, separate individuals ; and 

{fish, meaning a quantity. 

PLURAL OF COMPOUND WORDS. 

When I say, The horse-car is coming, of what is the noun 
horse-car composed? 

Of the two words horse and car. 
What does compound mean? 
Composed of separable parts. 
What kind of a word then is horse-car? 
Horse-car is a compound word, because it is composed 
of separable parts. 

For the plural of horse-car do you say horses-car or horse- 
cars, and why? 

Horse-cars; because car is the principal word, and horse 
merely describes it. 

How then do compound words form the plural? 

Compound words form the plural by pluralizing the prin- 
cipal word, or that part which is described by the rest. 



90 NUMBER. 

Give other examples of this kind. . 

Mouse -trap, mouse - traps ; wagon -load, wagon - loads ; 
commander-in-chief, commanders-in-chief; brother-in-law, 
brothers-in-law ; court-martial, courts-martial. 

Do any compound words make both parts plural? 

Yes; woman - servant, women -servants; man-servant, 
men-servants. 

PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. 

What rules can you give for the plural of proper names? 

When no title or the title Mrs. or a numeral precedes, 
the name takes s; as, the Marys, the Mrs. Johnsons, the 
two Miss Bentons. 

When no numeral or a title different from Mrs. precedes, 
either the title or the name may be pluralized, but not 
both; as, the Misses Butler, or the Miss Butlers; the Drs. 
Mason, or the Dr. Masons. 

If the title refers to two or more persons of different 
names, it must be pluralized; as, Profs. Wilson and Clark; 
Drs. Jones, Smith, and Thompson. 

PLURAL. OF LETTERS, FIGURES, ETC. 
How is the plural of letters, figures, and signs expressed? 
By adding an apostrophe and s; thus, "Dot your i's and 
cross your fs; add the 5's and 3's; rub out the + 9 s." 

PLURAL OF WORDS FROM OTHER LANGUAGES. 

How do words adopted from other languages form their plural? 
Some form the plural regularly, others change their 
endings as follows: 

a into ae; as, lumina, luminae; nebula, nebulae. 

us into i; as, radius, radii; alumnus, alumni. 

um or on into a; as, datum, data; phenomenon, phenomena. 

is into es; as, axis, axes; ellipsis, ellipses; analysis, analyses. 

x into ces; as, helix, helices; radix, radices. 

ex into ices; as, vertex, vertices; index, indices. 



NUMBER. 91 

NOUNS HAVING NO PLURAL. 

What nouns have no plural? 

Material and abstract nouns have properly no plural. 
When used in this number they denote different kinds; 
as, wines, teas, industries, 

NOUNS HAVING NO SINGULAR. 
What nouns have no singular? 

Such as consist of two or more essential parts; as, 
tongs, scissors, trousers, clothes, bowels, victuals, riches. 

NOUNS ALIKE IN BOTH NUMBERS. 

We say, one sheep, or two sheep. What can you say of such 
nouns? 

Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; as, 
sheep, deer, swine, grouse, species, series, corps. 

SINGULAR USED FOR THE PLURAL. 

Is the singular form ever used for the plural? 
Yes; we say, "Forty head of cattle; " "The general lost 
all his cannon;" "The creek abounds in trout and salmon" 

Exercise 57. 

Name the plural of these nouns and tell how it is formed: 
1. Hero, cameo, beau. 2. Englishman, seaman, Mussulman, 
talisman. 3. Henry, Mrs. Dixon, Dr. Foot, Miss Carol. 4. Die, 
brother, penny. 5. Cart-load, bowlful, sister-in-law, court-martial, 
field-marshal. 6. Larva, focus, crisis, effluvium, matrix, vertex. 
7. Folio, hand-cart, fish, stimulus, deer, law-book, Prof. Hunt. 

Exercise 58. 

Write two sentences with each noun, using the singular in the first 
and the plural in the second : 

n T ^ f First The lamp stands on the table. 

1. Lamp. Example: < ' r , , , - « 

t Second, Have you trimmed the lamps? 

2. Knife. * 5. Tooth. 8. Pailful. 11. Mrs. Conway. 

3. Mouse. 6. Berry. 9. Footman. 12. Miss Garnet. 

4. Peach. 7. Ox. 10. Dew-drop. 13. Die. 



92 



GENDER. 




PROPERTIES OF NOUNS— GENDER. 

1. See this boy and girl on their way to school. They 
are brother and sister, and are very fond of each other. 

2. A man and woman are standing upon the steps of 
the house. They are the father and mother of the children. 

3. There is an ox with long horns, and a cow with her 
calf, nipping the grass. 

4. How high that old rooster carries his head! And 
that old hen with her brood of little chickens — what a kind 
mother she is to them ! 



GENDER. 93 

5. Thus of all the living beings which we see about us 
we find there are two sexes. Among persons, there are 
men and women, boys and girls, brothers and sisters; among 
animals, the ox and the cow, horse and mare, lion and lioness. 
There are also objects that have no sex; as, stone, house, 
river, and all inanimate things. 

6. In speaking of objects we often wish to represent 
them as male or as female; and hence the nouns which 
name them must have the property of telling to which 
sex they belong. 

7. This property is called Gender. 

LESSON XXIV. 

GENDER. 

How many sexes are there? 

Two; the male and the female. 

What objects only have sex? 

Only things that have life, or animate objects. 

What is gender in grammar? 

Gender is that property of nouns and pronouns 

by which they distinguish the sex of objects. 

Of what sex are man, boy, father 1 

Of the male sex. 

What does masculine mean? 

Masculine means pertaining to a male. 

Of what gender then would you call the nouns boy, 
man, father 1 ? 

Boy, man, father are of the masculine gender, 

because they denote male persons. 



94 GENDER. 

Of what gender are ox, horse, lion, and why? 

Ox, horse, lion are of the masculine gender, 

because they denote male animals. 

Name other nouns of the masculine gender. 

Brother, uncle, son, king, gander, ram. 

Of what sex are woman, girl, mother? 

Of the female sex. 

What does feminine mean? 

Feminine means pertaining to a female. 

Of what gender then shall we call woman, girl, mother, 
and why? 

Woman, girl, mother are of the feminine gender, 

because they denote females. 

Of what gender are cow, mare, lioness, and why? Name 
other nouns of the feminine gender. 

Sister, aunt, queen, goose, hen, duck. 

To what sex do the objects stove, chair, house belong? 

To neither sex, because thev are inanimate 

objects. 

What does neuter mean? 

Neuter means neither. 

Of what gender then may we call such nouns as stove, 
chair, house, etc.? 

Stove, chair, house are of the neuter gender, be- 
cause they denote objects neither male nor female. 

Will you name other nouns of the neuter gender? 

Book, pencil, cap, wood, rain, moon, and all 
inanimate things. 



GENDEK. 95 

What does parent mean? 

Parent may mean either father or mother, 
either a male or a female. 

What does common mean? 

Common means general, or belonging to either. 

Of what gender then may we call the noun parent f 

Parent is of the common gender, because it 

denotes either a male or a female. 

Of what gender are child, scholar, bird, and why? 
Name other nouns of the common gender. 

Cousin, friend, teacher, person, robin. 

How many genders have nouns, and what are they? 

Four; masculine, feminine, neuter, and common. 

Will you define each, and give an example? 

The masculine gender denotes males; as, 
boy, man. 

The feminine gender denotes females; as, 
girl, woman. 

The neuter gender denotes objects neither 
male nor female; as, house. 

The common gender denotes objects either 
male or female ; as, child. 

LESSON XXV. 
METHODS OF DISTINGUISHING SEX. 

By what property do nouns distinguish the sex of 
objects? 

What nouns are of the masculine gender? What of the 
feminine? What of the neuter? What of the common? 



96 



GENDER. 



Name two nouns of the masculine gender represented 
in this picture. Two of the feminine. One of the neuter. 
Two of the common. 

Which of these nouns are 
of the masculine gender : Mary, 
aunt, cousin, lion, stone, king, 




teacher, lady, Henry, husband, m 
chalk, friend, rose, bride, bird, 
cloud? Which are feminine? 
Which neuter? Which common? 

What are the feminine nouns corresponding to boy, 
man, uncle f 

Girl, woman, aunt. 

What then is the first meilwd of distinguishing sex? 

By different words. 

Name other examples of this method. 

Brother, sister; son, daughter; husband, wife. 

Of what gender are prince, duke, lierot 

Of the masculine gender, because they denote 

males. 

What are the feminine nouns corresponding to them ? 

Princess, duchess, heroine. 

How do these words differ from the former? 

They have different terminations. 

What then is the second method by which nouns dis- 
tinguish sex? 

By a difference in termination. 

Give other examples of this kind. 

Emperor, empress; count, countess; testator, 

testatrix; Francis, Frances. 



GENDER. 97 

What third method is there by which some nouns dis- 
tinguish sex? 

By prefixing a distinguishing word ; as, man- 
servant, maid-servant. 

Will you repeat these three methods and give an 
example of each? 

First method : by different words ; as, boy, 
girl; man, woman. 

Second method: by a difference in termination; 
as, prince, princess; hero, heroine. 

Third method: by prefixing a distinguishing 
word; as, he-goat, she-goat. 

LESSON XXVI. 
GENDER (Continued), 

Since inanimate objects have no sex, of what gender are they? 
Of the neuter gender? 

When may inanimate objects be considered as having sex? 
When they are personified, or represented as persons; 
as, "The glorious sun dispenses his blessings." 

When inanimate objects are personified, which are considered 
of the masculine gender, and which of the feminine? 

Those exhibiting masculine qualities, such as power, size, 
sternness, are masculine; as, the sun, winter, the ocean, war. 

Those exhibiting feminine qualities, such as beauty, 
gentleness, are feminine; as, the moon, spring, peace. 

Correct the following sentences in respect to gender: 

The ship spread his sails to the breeze. The mighty ocean 
hurled her waves upon the shore. Old Winter is gone with 
her snow and ice, and gentle Spring spreads his flowers over 
the fields. 

7 



98 



GENDER. 



"When do we represent animate objects as without sex? 
When the sex is unimportant or unknown to us ; as we 
say of an infant, It is pretty; and of a bird, It sings sweetly. 

When we use the name of an animal in a general way to 
represent its species, which are regarded as masculine and which 
as feminine? 

Those having masculine qualities, such as strength, size, 
are masculine ; as we say of the lion, He is strong. 

Those having feminine qualities, such as gentleness, mild- 
ness, are feminine ; as we say of the dove, She is gentle. 

May a noun of one gender include objects of both sexes? 

When it is unnecessary to distinguish the sex of objects 
we use the noun of that gender whose sex is considered 
most numerous or important; as, "He left his estate to 
his heirs (and heiresses too);" "We keep hens, geese, and 
ducks (implying cocks, ganders, and drakes also)." 

DISTINCTION OF SEX. 
FIRST METHOD— By different Words. 



MAS. 


FEM. 


MAS. 


FEM. MAS. FEM. 


Bachelor, . 


maid. 


Father, . . 


mother. Master, mistress. 


Beau, . . . 


belle. 


Friar, , . 


nun. Monk, . nun. 


Boy, . . . 


girl. 


Gander, , 


goose. Nephew, niece. 


Boar, . . . 


sow. 


Gentleman 


lady. Papa, . mamma. 


Bridegroom 


bride. 


Hart, . . 


roe. Ram, . ewe. 


Brother, . . 


sister. 


Horse, . . 


mare. Sir, . . madam. 


Buck, . . . 


doe. 


Husband, . 


wife. Sloven, slut. 


Bull, . . . 


cow. 


King, . . 


queen. Son, . . daughter. 


Bullock, . 


heifer. 


Lad, . . . 


lass. Stag. . hind. 


Cock, . . . 


hen. 


Lord, . . 


lady. Steer, . heifer. 


Drake, . . 


duck. 


Male, . . 


female. Uncle, . aunt. 


Earl, . . . 


countess. Man,. . . 


woman. Wizard, witch. 


SECOND METHOD— By a difference in Termination-. 


MASCULINE. 




FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. FEMININE. 


Abhor, . . 




abbess. 


Duke, duchess. 


Baron,. . . 




baroness. 


Elector, electress. 


Benefactor 


j . . . . 


benefactress. 


Emperor, .... empress. 


Caterer, . . 




cateress. 


Giant, giantess. 


Count,. . . 




countess. 


Governor, .... governess. 



GENDER. 



99 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Heir, . . 


. heiress. 


Host, . . 


. . hostess. 


Hunter, . 


. huntress. 


Instructor 


. instructress. 


Jew, . . . 


. Jewess. 


Lion, . . 


. . lioness. 


Mayor, . 


. . mayoress. 


Marquis, 


. . marchioness. 


Peer, . . 


. . peeress. 


Preceptor, 


. preceptress. 


Priest,. . 


. priestess. 


Prince, . 


. princess. 


Prior, . . 


. . prioress. 


Prophet, 


. prophetess. 


Shepherd, 


. shepherdess. 


Sorcerer, , 


. sorceress. 



MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Tiger, tigress. 

Viscount, .... viscountess. 

Waiter, waitress. 

Administrator, . administratrix. 

Director, directrix. 

Executor, .... executrix. 

Testator, testatrix. 

Francis, Frances. 

Hero, heroine. 

Joseph, Josephine. 

Landgrave, . . . landgravine. 
Margrave, .... margravine. 

Czar, czarina. 

Sign or, sign or a. 

Sultan, sultana. 

Widower, .... widow. 



THIRD METHOD— By a distinguishing Word. 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Man-servant, maid-servant. Male cousin, . . female cousin, 

He-goat, . . . she-goat. Cock-sparrow, . hen-sparrow. 



Exekcise 59. 

Tell the gender of the following nouns: 

1. Sister, parent, tree, cow, father, duck, husband, cousin, water. 

2. Hero, cloud, niece, fox, book, son, sun, children, princess, duchess. 

3. Animal, uncle, queen, deer, fire, birds, man-servant, heroine, 
prince, empress, earl. 

Tell the feminine of the following: 

4. Uncle, son, bridegroom, father, boy, drake, master. 5. Lad, 
duke, hero, gentleman, monk, earl, Mr., king, hart. 6. Gander, 
sir, wizard, nephew, papa, marquis, emperor, heir, administrator, 
widower, bachelor, baron. 

Tell the masculine of the following: 

7. Mistress, duck, bride, goose, widow, hen, sister. 8. Niece, 
heroine, Frances, huntress, testatrix. 9. Countess, marchioness, 
ewe, Josephine. 



100 GENDER. 



Exercise 60. 

Put nouns in the blank spaces ; a noun of the masculine gender in 1, 
of the feminine in 2, of the neuter in 3, and of the common in 4 : 

1. The . .1. . and his . . 4. . are in the . .3. . (The boy and his 

cousin are in the house). 2. This little . .2. . has blue . .3. . and 

golden . . 3 . . 3. Those . . 4 . . have two . . 4 . . } a . . 1 . . and a . . 2 . . 

4. This . .3. . belongs to my. .2. . Mary. 5. . .4. . build . .3. . in 

the . . 3 . . 6. I am going to see my . . 4 . . who is very ill. 7. That 

poor . . 1 . . has lost his . . 1 . . and . . 2 . . 8. Good . . 4 . . love and 

obey their . . 4 . . 9. My . . 1 . . and . . 2 . . are coming to our . . 3 . . 

to-morrow, with all their little . . 1 . . and . . 2 . ., who are, of course, 

my . .4. . 10. That . .2. . with the black . .3. . on is a . . 2. . to 

my. .4. . 11. My. .2. . has a pet . .4. . in a pretty . .3. . 12. The 

. . 3 . . sank, and all the . . 4 . #> . . 1 . mj . . 2 . #J and . . 4 . . were drowned. 

Exercise 61. 

Put pronouns of the proper gender in the following spaces: 
1. The marquis has retired to .... estate. 2. "We met an old 
witch, and .... promised to tell our fortunes. 3. Mont Blanc 
raises .... snow-capped head. 4. The moon bathes the landscape 
in ... . soft light. 5. War has sheathed .... blood-stained sword, 
and gentle Peace dispenses .... blessings upon our land. 6. When 
the storm has spent .... fury the beautiful rainbow displays .... 
radiant form. 

Exercise 62. 

Write four sentences with each of the following verbs, using a noun 
of each gender as in the example: 

First, The boy rides to town. 

Second, He rides to town with his sister. 

Third, He rides in a wagon. 

^ Fourth, He rides to the city to see his cousin. 

2. See. 5. Sells. 8. Loves. 11. Writes. 

3. Buys. 6. Tell. 9. Reads. 12. Play. 

4. Ask. 7. Makes. 10. Goes. 13. Walks. 



1. Rides. Ex.: A 



PERSON. 



lGi 




PROPERTIES OF NOUNS— PERSON. 



1. Here are two boys with a kite, a bat, and a ball. 
They come to you and say, "We boys are going to have a 
play-day. Come, George, will you go with us? We are 
going to see our cousin, who lives in that large house across 
the river." 

2. In this picture, as well as in the boys' speech, there 
are three parties ; first, there are two boys who are speaking; 
second, there is the boy upon the fence who is spoken to; 
and the third party is their cousin, of whom they speak. 



102 PERSON. 

3. To represent these three parties in speaking or writing 
nouns and pronouns have a property called Person. 

LESSON XXVII. 
PERSON. 

When a boy says, I, John, am going to see my cousin, 
what person does the noun John represent? 

It represents the person speaking. 

What person do grammarians call the person speaking f 

The first person. 

Of what person then is John in the sentence "I, John, 
am going to see my cousin?" 

John is of the first person, because it repre- 
sents the person speaking. 

We girls are going to school. Of what person is girls f 
When a boy says to you, Here, George, take your book, 
what person does George represent? 

It represents the person spoken to. 
What person do grammarians call the person spoken to f 
The second person. 

Of what person then is George in the above sentence? 
George is of the second person, because it repre- 
sents the person spoken to. 

Here is your book, Mary. Of what person is Maryl 
When the boys say, We are going to see our cousin, 
of whom do they speak? 

Of their cousin. 

What person then does the noun cousin represent? 

It represents the person spoken of. 



PERSON. 



103 



What person do grammarians call the person spoken off 
The third person. 

Of what person then is cousin above, and why? 
Cousin is of the third person, because it repre- 
sents the person spoken of. 

I wrote a letter to my brother. Of what person is 
brother? Why? 

O mother, please let 
us girls go and see cousin 
Lucy to-day. Of what 
person is Lucy? Why? 
Of what person is mother? 
Why ? Of what person is 
girls? Why? 

Will you now define 
person ? 

Person is that 

property of nouns and 

pronouns by which they denote the speaker, the 

loerson spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

How many persons have nouns, and what are they? 

Three ; the first, the second, and the third. 

Will you define each person, and give an example? 

The first person represents the person speak- 
ing ; as, "I, Paid, have written this letter." 

The second person represents the person 
spoken to; as, "Come, George, go with us," 

The third person represents the person or 
thing spoken of; as ? " My uncle lives in that house" 




104 PERSON. 

LESSON XXVIII. 
PERSON (Continued). 

"What is person in grammar? What nouns only can be of 
the first person? 

Only nouns representing persons, because only persons 
can be speakers. 

What nouns can be of the second person? 

Only nouns representing living things, that is, persons 
and animals; because only living things can properly be 
spoken to, since they only can hear. 

What nouns may be of the third person? 

Any noun may be of the third person, since any object 
can be spoken of. 

When may an inanimate object be of the second person? 

When it is addressed as a person, or personified; as, 
"Roll on, old ocean!" "Farewell, my native land!" 

What peculiar use of the persons is sometimes adopted in 
invitations, addresses, etc.? 

The speaker and the person addressed are sometimes 
represented, for politeness, in the third person; as, "Miss 
Forest (speaker) will be happy to see Mr. Shadewell (spoken 
to) to-morrow evening." 

Exercise 63. 

Tell the person of each noun: 

1. W T e boys are going to see our cousin. 2. Come and see me 
this evening, Mary. 3. My uncle and aunt live in New York. 
4. This book belongs to my brother. 5. Is your father at home, 
William? 6. Who owns this hat? I, George Wilson. 7. Thou, 
Lord, hast made the heavens and the earth. 8. I, Darius, make 
this decree. 9. Hurrah! boys, we have a holiday ! Now for some 
fun? 10. Here, Grip, the pig is in the garden; seize him. 11. Little 
brook, where are you running so fast? 



PERSON. 105 

Exercise 64. 

Put nouns in the blank spaces; one of the first person in 1, of the 
second in 2, and of the third in 3: 

1. Good evening, . .2. .; I am glad to see you (Good evening, 
ladies; I am glad to see you). 2. We . .1. . are going a fishing; 
come, . . 2 . ., will you go with us ? 3. My . . 3 . . has gone to . . 3 . . 
4. Will you loan me your . . 3 . mj . . 2 . . ? 5. I, . . 1 . ., . . 1 . . of 
England, do make this . .3. . 6. Farewell, my . .2. .; I must 
leave you now. 7. . .2. ., when are you going to . .3. .? 8. Our 
. . 2 . . in heaven, have mercy upon us . . 1 . . 9. That is my . . 3 . ., 
. .2. .; so you may let it alone. 

Exercise 65. 

Write three sentences, using a noun in each person, with each of the 
following verbs: 

r First, We boys go to the same school. 

1. Go. Example: -| Second, Do you go to our school, William? 

v Third, The cars go by steam. 

2. Tell. 4. Say. 6. Make. 8. Give. 10. Command. 

3. Do. 5. Own. 7. Reads. 9. Leave. 11. Rides. 

Exercise 66. 

Write original sentences containing nouns as directed: 

1. A common noun, of the plural number, common gender, 
first person (We pupils of this school study grammar). 

2. A proper noun, of the singular number, feminine gender, 
second person. 

3. A common noun, of the plural number, masculine gender, 
third person. 

4. A common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, 
third person. 

5. A proper noun, of the plural number, masculine gendei. 
second person. 

6. A common noun, of the singular number, common gender, 
third person. 

7. A proper noun, of the singular number, feminine gender, 
first person. 

8. A common noun, of each number, masculine gender, third 
person. 



106 



CASE. 



5^2=^ 







PROPERTIES OF NOUNS— CASE. 

1. What a busy picture! There is hardly an idle thing 
to be seen. The man cuts wood; the horse (Iran-* the cart; 
the old cow tosses the dog; the little girl reads her book; 
the boy ro/fc his hoop; the maid draws water; the brook 
fatrtifl the tfxheeZ. 

2. Just look at those two scenes of a dog and pig. 
In one the dog bites the pig; in the other the pig bites the 
dog. You perceive that the dog sustains quite a different 
relation in one from what he does in the other; in one he 
bites j in the other he is bitten. 



CASE. 107 

3. To express these different states, or conditions, nouns 
have a property which is called Case. 

LESSON XXIX. 

CASE. 

When I say, The dog bites the pig, what relation does 
the noun dog sustain in the sentence? 

It sustains the relation of subject, since the 
dog performs the action. 

What relation does pig sustain in the same sentence? 

It sustains the relation of object acted upon, 
since the pig receives the bite. 

What does case mean in grammar? 

Case denotes the relations which words sustain. 

What does nominative mean? 

Nominative means naming, 

Now, since the subject is generally first named before 
any thing is said of it, in what case would you call dog in 
the sentence, Tlie dog bites the pigl 

Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the 

subject of the verb bites. 

The horse runs. In what case is horse f Why? In 
the sentence, The dog bites the pig, what is the object of the 
verb bites f 

Pig is the object, because the pig receives 

the bite. 

What does objective mean? 

Objective means pertaining to the object. 



108 CASE. 

In what case then is pig in the above sentence, and why ? 

Pig is in the objective case, because it denotes 

the object of the verb bites. 

The girl reads her book. What is the object which the 
girl reads? In what case then is bookt Why? In the 
sentence, The pig bites the dog, in what case is each noun? 

Pig is now in the nominative case, because it 

is the subject of the verb bites ; and dog is in the 

objective case, because it is the object of bites. 

The horse draws the cart. In what case is horse f Why ? 
In what case is cartl Why? 

How may the nominative case be known? 

By asking the question who, or what, with the 
verb; thus, in the sentence, The dog barks, ask 
what barks? The answer, dog, will show that 
dog is in the nominative case. 

How may the objective case be known? 

By asking the question whom, or what, after 
the verb; thus, in the sentence, The dog bites the 
pig, ask bites tvhat? The 
answer, pig, will show that 
pig is in the objective case. 

Which of the following nouns 
are in the nominative case: The 
hog tore the hat, and the boy struck 
the hog? Which are in the objec- 
tive case? Why? 

When I say, Mary reads John's book, what relation does 
John sustain? 

The relation of owner or possessor of the book. 




CASE. 100 

What does possessive mean? 

Possessive means pertaining to the possessor. 

In what case then would you call the noun John's in 
the sentence, Mary reads John's book, and why? 

Joints is in the possessive case, because it denotes 

the possessor. 

The boy's knife is lost. In what case is boy's? Why? 
Will you now define case? 

Case is that property of nouns and pronouns 
which indicates their relation to other words in 
the sentence. 

How many cases are there, and what are they? 

Three; the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

Define each case, and give an example. 

The nominative case denotes the subject; 
as, /'The man walks." 

The possessive case denotes the possessor ; 
as, "It is the girVs book." 

The objective case denotes the object; as, 
"He strikes the hoop." 

LESSON XXX. 

FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE. 

The man leads the horse ; the horse follows the man ; it 
is the man's horse. In what case is man in each sentence? 
Which two cases are alike? 

The nominative and objective eases are alike. 



110 CASE. 

How does the possessive case differ from the nominative? 

It adds an apostrophe and the letter s. 

Of what number is the noun maris. 

Of the singular number, because it denotes 

but one. 

How then is the possessive case singular of nouns 
usually formed? 

By adding the apostrophe and s to the nomi- 
native; as, the girl's dress; the cat's claws; the 
suns light. 

What can you remark of the additional s in such forms 
as conscience's sake, goodness' s sake? 

The additional s is sometimes omitted ; but it 

is better to write the full form; thus, consciences 

sake, goodness s sake. 

When we speak of more than one soldier do we say, 
The soldier's camp, or The soldiers' camp? 

The soldiers camp; using the apostrophe only 
after the noun. 

How then is the possessive case plural usually formed? 

By adding the apostrophe only. 

Will you give other examples? 

The scholars books ; brothers' houses ; our 
friends welfare. 

When is s also added in the possessive case plural? 

When the plural noun does not end in 5 the 
apostrophe and s are both added ; as, the children s 
toys; the oxens yoke. 






CASE. 



Ill 



When two or more words form one noun to which is 
the possessive sign annexed? 

To the last only; as, John Watsons book; my 

sister-in-law s house. 



LESSON XXXI. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



When I say, The boy runs; The boys hat; you perceive that 
the noun boy changes its form to indicate the possessive case, boy's; 
that is, it has declension. What then is declension? 

Declension is a change of form which nouns and 
pronouns undergo to express their different cases. 

When therefore I ask you to decline a noun what do I mean? 
To name in regular order its forms in the several cases. 
Decline boy, fox, man, lady. 



Nom. 


SINGULAR. 

boy, 


PLURAL. 

boys, 


Nom. 


SINGULAR. 

fox, 


PLURAL. 

foxes, 


Poss. 


boys, 


boys', 


Poss. 


fox's, 


foxes', 


Obj. 


boy. 


boys. 


Obj. 


fox. 


foxes. 


Nom. 


man, 


men, 


Nom. 


lady, 


ladies, 


Poss. 


man's, 


men's, 


Poss. 


lady's, 


ladies' 


Obj. 


man. 


men. 


Obj. 


lady. 


ladies. 



Write the declension of the following nouns: 
Dog. Fish. Child. Ox. Monkey. Mother-in-law. 

Calf. City. Class. Goose. Woman. Express-agent. 

Exercise 67. 

Tell the case of each noun, and why: 

1. The merchant sells wheat and corn. 2. The boy rides his 
father's horse. 3. Mary's little sister wears a blue dress. 4. The 
rain falls, and the wind blows. 5. The stream turns the wheel, 
the wheel turns the stone, and the stone grinds the corn. 6. This 
little girl's sister reads her brother's book. 7. The oxen draw the 
plow. 8. The farmers plow the ground and sow wheat. 9. Do 



112 CASE. 

not touch the children's toys. 10. That large house is my father's. 
11. This is the oxen's stall, and that is the cows'. 12. The earth 
produces trees, flowers, and fruits. 

Exercise 68. 

Put nouns in the blank spaces; a nominative case in 1, a possessive 
In 2, an objective in 3: 

1. The . . 1 . . shot the . . 3 . . (The hunter shot the fox). 2, The 

. . l . . found a . . 2 . . . . 3 . . in a tall tree. 3. Good . . 1 . . study 

their . . 3 . . 4. That white . . 1 . . is my . . 2 . . 5. This little . . 1 . . 

loves her . .3. . 6. . .2. . . .1. . is pink, but her . .1. . is blue. 

7. The . .1. . falls, and moistens the . •. 3. . 8. . .1. . should love 

and honor their . .3. . 9. The . .1. . sells . .2. . . .3. . and . .2. . 

. .3. . 10. . . 1. . carry . .3. . across the ocean. 11. This . .2. . 

. . 1 . . is very pretty. 12. The . . 1 . . bit the . . 2 . . . . 3 . . 

Exercise 69. 

Write six sentences with each noun; using the several cases and 
numbers as indicated in the example: 

1. Man. 3. Dog. 5. Child. 7. Monkey. 

2. Boy. 4. Lady. 6. Fox. 8. Woman. 

Example. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. The man plants corn. Men build houses and ships. 

Pos. The man's horse ran away. The tailor makes men's clothes. 
Obj. The horse kicked the man. I met two men in the street. 

Exercise 70. 

Write original sentences containing nouns in each case as indicated 
below : 

1. One in the nom. case sing. Example : The bird flies swiftly. 

2. One in the poss. case sing. 9. One in the poss. and obj. sing.^ 

3. One in the obj. case sing. 10. One in the nom. and poss. plural. 

4. One in each case of the ring* 11. One in the nom. and obj. plural. 

5. One in the nom. case plural. 12. One in the poss. and obj. plural. 

6. One in the poss. case plural. 13. One in each case of the plural. 

7. One in the obj. case plural 14. One in the nom. sing, and obj. plural. 

8. One in the nom. and poss. sing. 15. One in the nom. plural and obj. sing. 

-Example 4. The boy tore the girl's book. 
t Example 9. I borrowed my brother's knife. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 



113 




CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. This large tree bears sweet apples, and the small tree 
bears soft peaches. 

2. Here the adjectives large, sweet, small, soft describe 
their nouns, or tell what kind the things are ; thus, What 
kind of a tree? A large tree. 

3. But when we say, "This cart has four wheels," the 
adjectives this and four do not describe their nouns, since 
we do not know what kind of a cart or what kind of 
wheels they are any better than before. They merely define 
their nouns, or tell us which or how many the things are. 

8 



114 CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

4. Hence we see that there are two Classes of Ad- 
jectives : descriptive adjectives, which describe their nouns ; 
and definitive adjectives, which define them. 

LESSON XXXII. 
DESCRIPTIVE AND DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

When I say, I have a soft peach, what is soft! 

Soft is an adjective. 

For what purpose is it used? 

It is used to describe the noun peach. 

What kind of an adjective then would you call soft? 

Soft is a descriptive adjective, because it describes 

its noun. 

Here is a mellow apple. What is mellow? Why? 
Give other examples of descriptive adjectives. 

Black horses; red cheeks; hard lesson; tall 

men; pretty girls. 

When I say, / want those books, does the adjective those 
describe books? 

It does not; it defines the noun books, or tells 
which books are meant. 

What kind of an adjective then would you call those? 

Those is a definitive adjective, because it defines 
its noun. 

We have many friends. What is many? Why? Give 
other examples of definitive adjectives. 

This house; two hands; some money; all men; 

several books. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 



115 



How many classes of adjectives are there? 

Two: descriptive and definitive. 

Will you define each? 

A descriptive adjective is one that describes 
its noun; as, cross dogs. 

A definitive adjective is one that defines its 
noun; as, these men. 

Write a different descriptive adjective with each of 
these nouns : girl, house, river, book, lady, mountain, city. 

Write a different definitive ad- 
jective with each of these nouns : 
man, table, school, church, stone, 
field, soldiers. 

Of which class is each adjec- 
tive in the following sentence: 
This large balloon has many long 
ropes ? 

Write three other sentences 
about the picture, each containing a descriptive adjective. 
Write three, each containing a definitive adjective. 

Into what classes are definitive adjectives sometimes di- 
vided? 

Numerals; which denote number ; as, one, two, 
three, etc.; first, second, third, etc. 

Demonstratives; which denote objects defi- 
nitely; as, this, that, these, those, yonder. 

Indefinites; which denote objects indefinitely; 
as, some, other, both, any, one, all, such, no, several. 

Distributives; which denote objects separately ; 
as, each, every, either, neither. 




116 CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

What other classes of adjectives are sometimes reckoned? 

Proper adjectives, which are derived from proper 
names; as, u American ladies." 

Participial adjectives, which are participles used 
as adjectives; as, "The rising sun." 

Exercise 71. 

Name the adjectives, and tell which are descriptive, and which are 
definitive : 

1. Tall oaks from little acorns grow. 2. These trees bear large 

sweet apples. 3. Those fine houses belong to that rich banker. 

4; There are many houses in a large city. 5. The night was dark, 

and no stars were visible. 6. Is there any game in this forest? 

7. Yes; I shot several rabbits and one deer. 8. There are few 

trees which bear such fruit. 9. Both stories were false, every word 

of them. 10. You have four fingers and one thumb on each hand. 

11. Both roads are good, but some men will take neither. 12. Our 

first lesson commences on the fifteenth page. 

Exercise 72. 

Put a descriptive adjective in 1, and a definitive in 2: 
1. My . .1. . uncle lives in . .2. . . .1. . house (My old uncle 
lives in that fine house). 2. . .2. . . .1. . trees bear . .1. . apples. 
3. There are but . . 2 . . men like him. 4. . . 2 . . ducks are found 
in . . 2 . . pond. 5. I saw . . 2 . . . . 1 . . things in Paris. 6. I have 
been fishing, but caught . . 2 . . fish. 7. Have you heard . . 2 . . news 
to-day? 8. Greece had . .2. . . .1. . men. 9. Learn some . .1. . 
thing . .2. . day. 10. I have . .2. . . .1... friends in . .2. . city. 
11. I saw him to-day for the . . 2 . . time in . . 2 . . years. 12. . . 2 . . 
. . 1 . . youth is the . . 1 . . son of Lord Baldpate. 

Exercise 73. 

Write original sentences as directed below: 

1. Two containing descriptive adjectives. 2. Two containing 
definitive adjectives. 3. Two containing both descriptive and 
definitive adjectives. 



PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 117 



PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. In the picture on page 113 you see a tall tree standing 
alone ; near it is a taller tree ; but the tree with the straight 
trunk is the tallest tree in the landscape. 

2. These adjectives, tall, taller, and tallest, imply a com- 
parison of their objects with one another, and indicate that 
these objects possess the quality of tallness in different 
degrees. 

3. So of almost all qualities there are different degrees, 
and to express the relative degrees of their qualities in 
different objects adjectives have a property which is called 
Comparison. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

When I say, That is a tall tree, what is tallf In this 
sentence I do not compare the tree with any other, but 
simply say in a positive manner that it is a tall tree. Of 
what degree of comparison then is tallf 

Tall is of the positive degree, because it ex- 
presses the simple quality of the adjective. 

My father is an old man. Of what degree is oldf 
Why? Give other examples of the positive degree. 

A white cloud ; bright stars ; a beautiful lady. 

When I say, The oak is a taller tree than ilie maple, what 
does the adjective taller imply? 

It implies a comparison between the two trees, 

and indicates a higher degree of tallness in the 

oak than in the maple. 



118 PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Of what degree then may we call the adjective taller f 

Taller is of the comparative degree, because it 

implies a comparison. 

Rose is a prettier girl than Annie. Of what degree 
is prettier! Why? Give other examples of the compara- 
tive degree. 

George is a younger boy than his cousin; the 

sea is deeper than the river. 

When I say, The poplar is the tallest tree in the forest, 
what is meant by tallest! 

Surpassing all in height. 

What does superlative mean? 

Superlative means surpassing all, the highest 
degree of the quality. 

Of what degree then shall we call tallest! 

Tallest is of the superlative degree, because it 
denotes the highest degree of the quality. 

The Amazon is the largest river. Of what degree is 
largest! Why? Give other examples of the superlative 
degree. 

Smith is the richest man in town; the sun is 
the brightest of all the heavenly bodies. 

Will you now define comparison! 

Comparison is that property of adjectives by 
which they express different degrees of quality. 

How many degrees of comparison are there? 

Three ; the positive, the comparative, and the 
superlative. 






PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 119 

Will you define each degree? 

The positive degree expresses the simple 
quality of the adjective without comparison; as, 
"The elephant is a large animal." 

The comparative degree implies a com- 
parison between two objects or classes of objects, 
and shows a higher degree of the quality in one 
than in the other; as, "The elephant is larger 
than the ox." 

The superlative degree implies a compari- 
son among three or more, and indicates that one 
of them possesses the quality in the highest degree 
of all the objects compared; as, "The elephant 
is the largest animal of the land." 

LESSON XXXIV. 
FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

When I say, Mary is young, Caroline is younger, but 
Margaret is the youngest girl in school, of what degree is 
each adjective? 

How are the comparative and superlative of this adjec- 
tive formed? 

The comparative is formed by adding er and 
the superlative by adding est to the positive; as, 
pos. young, comp. young-er, sup. young-est. 

Will you compare sweet f 

Pos. sweet, comp. sweeter, sup. sweetest. 

Will you compare in the same manner rich, hard, soft! 



120 PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 

When are r and st alone added? 

When the positive ends in e; as, fine, finer, 
finest; safe, safer, safest. 

What then is the regular method of comparison? 

By adding r or er for the comparative, and st 
or est for the superlative. 

What adjectives are compared by this method? 

Adjectives of one syllable, and a few of two 
syllables ; as, proud, prouder, proudest ; polite, 
politer, politest. 

Do we say, This is a good pen, but that is a gooder one? 

No; we say, "This is a good pen, t>ut that is a 
better one, and this is the best one." 

How is the comparison formed in this case? 

It is formed irregularly, by using different 
words. 

What then is a second method of comparison? 

An irregular method. 

What adjectives are compared by this method? 

Only the following: good, better, best; bad or 
ill, worse, worst; much, more, most; many, more, 
most; little, less, least; far, farther, farthest. 

Will you now repeat the two methods of comparison? 

1. The regular method: Adjectives of one sylla- 
ble, and some of two syllables, add r or er for 
the comparative, and st or est for the superlative ; 
as, old, older, oldest ; ripe, riper, ripest. 



PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 121 

2. The irregular method: A few adjectives are 
compared by using different words; as, good, 
better, best. 

When the adjective itself does not admit of variation 
how is comparison expressed? 

By prefixing the adverb more for the compara- 
tive and most for the superlative; thus, pos. studious, 
conip. more studious, sup. most studious. 

With what adjectives is this method used: 
With all adjectives of more than two syllables, 
and some of two syllables; as, intelligent, more 
intelligent, most intelligent; careful, more careful, 
most careful. 

What can you remark of this method? 

It may be used with any adjective when not 
followed by its noun; as, "A form more fair, a 
step more light," etc. 

All these methods express increase of the quality ; how 
is decrease of the quality expressed? 

To express decrease of the quality all adjectives 
prefix less for the comparative and least for the 
superlative; as, wise, less wise, least wise. 

PECULIARITIES IN COMPARISON. 

How are the endings of some adjectives changed in com- 
parison ? 

The ending y after a consonant is changed into i before 
er and est; as, happy, happier, happiest; dry, drier, driest. 



122 PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 

The y after a vowel is not changed; as, gay, gayer, gayest 

The final consonant after a single vowel in monosyllables 
is doubled; as, hot, hotter, hottest; sad, sadder, saddest; thin, 
thinner, thinnest 

"What adjectives have two forms for the same degree? 

™ ^ f older, oldest, -^ f farther, farthest, 

' 1 elder, eldest ; 1 further, furthest ; 

AT ( nearest, T , f later, latest, 

JNear, nearer, < ' .Late, < ' ' 

( next ; I latter, last. 

"What can you say of the syllable most? 

The syllable most affixed to certain adjectives and 
adverbs gives them a superlative signification; as, hind, 
hindmost; inmost, topmost. 

"What force has the ending ish? 

The ending ish expresses a slight degree of quality 
below the positive; as, salt, saltish; sweet, sweetish. 

We say, God is eternal; can we say any thing is more eternal? 

We can not ; eternal does not admit of comparison. 

"What adjectives do not admit of comparison? 

1. Adjectives which express invariable qualities; as, 
eternal, almighty, single, double, etc. 

2. The definitive adjectives as a class. 

Do we say, "This is worser than that;" "It is most sweetest?" 
No; double comparatives and double superlatives are 
improper. 

Exercise 74. 

Tell the degree of the following adjectives: 

1. Mary is a lovely girl, and the sweetest singer in the school. 
2. James is the most studious pupil I have. 3. He is older and 
more intelligent than his little brother. 4. This is a rough road, 
but is less muddy than the other. 5. She is happier at home than 
in a noisy crowd. 6. Did you ever hear a heavier clap of thunder 
or see more vivid lightning?. 7. The horse is a noble and useful 
animal. 8. Clara is prettier but less gentle than her oldest sister. 



PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 123 

9. God is eternal in existence and infinite in wisdom. 10. Ripe 
fruit is healthier and more palatable than green. 11. The worst 
weeds grow with least cultivation, while the best fruits require 
the most care. 

Exercise 75. 

Put adjectives in the blank spaces ; a positive in 1, a comparative in 2, 
a superlative in 3. 

1. Minnie is a . .1. . girl, but Rose is a . .2. . one (Minnie is a 
pretty girl, but Rose is a prettier one). 2. She is . .2. . than 
her . .1. . sister. 3. Alice has the . .3. . dress in the company. 
4. The elephant is the . . 3 . . land animal. 5. The horse is a . . 2 . . 
animal than the mule. 6. Gold is . .2. . and has a . .2. . luster 
than silver. 7. This peach is . . 2 . . and . . 2 . . than yours. 8. He 
is the . .3. . pupil in the school. 9. Gold is . .2. . and . .2. . 
than iron. 10. Mr. Smith owns a . .1. . house, and is the . .3. . 
man in the city. 

Exercise 76. 

Express the comparative and superlative degrees with the following 
adjectives: 

Still. Old. Clear. Careless. Much. Bright. Industrious. 

New. 111. Ample. Polite. Mellow. Free. Excellent. 

Write the comparison of the following: 
Red. Sly. Dim. Wet. Lovely. Hearty. 

Dry. Gray. Flat. Slim. Lazy. Wealthy. 

Exercise 77. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences: 

1. Mary is studiouser than her sister. 2. Your dog is more big 
than mine. 3. The sun is the brighter of the heavenly bodies. 
4. Thomas is a bad boy, but James is a badder one. 5. This girl 
is prettyer and gaier than her sister. 6. He is the learnedest man 
in the city. 7. London is a more large and populouser city than 
Paris. 8. She gave me the littlest apple, but it was the sweeter 
one she had. 9. Beech makes a hoter fire than pine, but gives a 
dimer light. 10. My pen is worser than it was before. 11. This 
lady is the most sweet singer and the elegantest dancer in the 
company. 12. It was the terriblest accident that ever happened 
on that road. 



124 



PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES, 



LESSON XXXV. 

ARTICLES. 

When I say, Give me a booh, what do I mean? 

You mean any book, no matter what one, 

When I say, Give me tlie book, what do I mean? 

Yon mean a particular 

book, either the one I 

may have in my hand 

or some book previously 

alluded to. 

What are these words, a 
and the, which make this dif- 
ference in meaning called? 

Articles. 

What is an articled 

An article is a word placed before a noun to 

limit or define its meaning. 

What w T ords are articles? 

A, or an, and the. 

Under what are these words often classed? 

Under definitive adjectives. 

What does definite mean? 

Definite means particular. 

Since then the book means a particular book, what kind 
of an article would you call the? 

The is a definite article. 

What does indefinite mean? 

Indefinite means not definite, not particular. 




PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 125 

Since a book means no particular book, what kind of an 
article is at 

A is an indefinite article. 

When I say, Give me an apple, what does an mean? 

An means the same as a; it implies no par- 
ticular apple. 

How then do a and an differ? 

They are the same in meaning, and differ only 
in their use. 

When do we use an instead of at 

An is used before the vowels (a, e, z, o, n), or 
before vowel-sounds ; as, an apple, an echo, an idol, 
an oak, an uncle. 

When do we use at 

A is used before consonant-sounds; as, a boat, 
a cat, a dog, a fan, etc. 

Which letters are consonants? 

All the letters of the alphabet except the 

vowels a, e, i, o, u. 

The word hour begins with a consonant ; would you say 
a hour or an hour? 

An hour, because the h is silent and the word 

begins with a vowel-sound. 

The word one begins with a vowel ; would you say an 
one or a onet 

A one, because one is pronounced as if spelled 

wan, hence it begins with a consonant-sound, and 

takes the article a before it. 



126 PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Do we say, an anion, an eulogy, etc. ? 

No; we say, a union, a eulogy, because these 
words are pronounced as if beginning with y ; 
thus, a yunion, a yeidogy. 

How many classes of articles are there? 

Two; the definite and the indefinite. 

Will you define each? 

The definite article with a noun implies some 
particular object; as, "Give me the book." 

The indefinite article with a noun implies no 
particidar object; as, "Give me a book." 

Exercise 78. 

Supply the appropriate indefinite article in the blank spaces: 

1 boy has .... apple in ... . cap [A boy has an apple 

in a cap). 2. Not .... tree nor .... herb was left on the ground. 

3. The man bought .... goat and .... ewe. 4 honest man 

is the noblest work of God. 5. They had .... elephant and .... 
hippopotamus in the caravan. 6. He advocated .... union of 
the states. 7. Caesar was .... hero and .... historian; he wrote 
.... history of his campaigns. 

Exercise 79. 

Correct the errors in the following, and give the reason: 
1. He was gone a hour and an half. 2. I met a old man riding 
upon an very old horse. 3. Many an one has fallen here. 4. He 
wrote an eulogy upon a uncle of his. 5. Charles has a apple and 
an peach. 6. That man is an hypocrite. 7. I met an one-armed 
man bearing an ewer of water. 8. George, where does a lesson 
begin? 9. I know a little boy who has the large black dog, and 
a dog's name is Max. 10. There was once the little girl whose 
father gave her the pretty bird. Her brother made the cage for a 
bird, and a little girl put a bird in a cage, and fed it every day. 



CLASSES OF VJEKBS. 



127 




CLASSES OF VERBS. 

1. Here is another very busy picture. A picture to 
illustrate verbs, you know, is apt to be a busy one. 

2. On one side a boy beats a drum; a horse draws a cart; 
the farmer plows the ground. On the other side a boy 
spins a top; the girl rolls her hoop, etc. 

3. In the center below the man ivalks; the horse runs; 
the bird flies; the ship sails; the dog barks, etc. 

4. In both cases the verbs express actions, but they do 
not express actions of the same kind. Let us compare 
them. On one side "The boy beats a drum';' on the other 



128 CLASSES OF VERBS. 

"The man walks. 7 ' The verb beats, you observe, expresses 
an action which passes over to an object, drum; the boy 
beats something ; he beats a drum. The act concerns two ; 
the boy, who beats, and the drum, which is beaten. The 
verb walks expresses an action which does not pass over to 
any object; the man does not walk any thing. The act 
concerns but one, the man who walks. And so of all the 
other verbs; as, "The horse draws a cart;" "The horse 
runs," etc. 

5. Thus we see that verbs are divided, according to the 
nature of their actions, into two classes; one class express- 
ing actions which require an object, the other expressing 
actions which do not require an object. The former are 
called transitive verbs; the latter intransitive verbs. 



LESSON XXXVI. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

What is a verb? When I say, The boy beats a drum; 
the man walks; what are the words beats and walks f 

Beats and walks are verbs, because they tell 
what the man does. 

What difference is there between the acts expressed by 
these two verbs? 

Beats expresses an action which passes over to 

an object, drum; while walks expresses an action 

which does not pass over to any object, but affects 

only the actor. 

What does the word transitive mean? 
Transitive means passing over. 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 



129 



What kind of a verb then may beats be called? 

Beats is a transitive verb, because it expresses 

an act which passes over to an object. 

The man cuts wood. What is the object of the verb 
cuts? What kind of a verb then is cuts, and why? 

Cuts is a transitive verb, because it takes an 

object. 

The horse draws the cart. What kind of a verb is 
draws f Why? Give other examples of transitive verbs. 

The girl reads her book; the dog bit the boy; 

the farmer plows the ground. 

What does intransitive mean? 

Intransitive means not passing over. 

In the sentence, The man ivalks, since walks expresses 
an action which does not pass over to any object, what 
kind of a verb is ivalks f 

Walks is an intransitive verb, because it does not 

take an object. _^_ 

The dog barks. Does 
the dog bark any thing? 
What kind of a verb then 
is barks? Give other ex- 
amples of intransitive 
verbs. 

The ship sails; the 

bird sits upon her nest ; 

the tree grows. 

Write three sentences about the picture, each contain- 
ing a transitive verb. Write three, each containing an 
intransitive verb. 

9 




130 CLASSES OF VERBS. 

How many classes of verbs are there? 

Two; transitive and intransitive. 

Will you define and illustrate each? 

A transitive verb is one that takes an object; 
as, "He strikes the dog." 

An intransitive verb is one that does not 
take an object; as, "The sun shines" 

LESSON XXXVII. 
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS (Continued). 

The farmer sows the grain. "What kind of a verb is sows? 
Why? What is its object? 

The farmer sows in spring and reaps in autumn. What is 
the object of sows here? 

Its object is omitted, but can be supplied without chang- 
ing the sense of the sentence; thus, "The farmer sows (the 
seed) in spring and reaps (the grain) in autumn." 

What kind of verbs then are sows and reaps? 
When a verb is used without an object how do you determine 
whether it is transitive or not? 

If an object can be supplied without impairing or 
changing the sense of the sentence, the verb is transitive ; 
as, I wrote (a letter) to my brother this morning. 

When we say, She reads a book, what kind of a verb is reads? 
Why? What is its object? 

When we say, She reads well, what do we mean? 

She is a good reader. Here we regard merely the act 
of reading with no reference to an object. 

What kind of a verb is reads here, and why? 

It may be regarded here as an intransitive verb, because 
its object is too indefinite to be supplied without impairing 
the sense of the sentence. 




CLASSES OF VEKBS. 131 

What principle can you give for such instances? 

Transitive verbs may become intransitive when we have 
regard merely to the action, with no reference to an object; 
as, "We ride out each day ;" 
"That horse kicks; 99 "Our 
teacher whips severely." 

Birds fly in the air. "What W^^^^^^^^^^^^ff^: 
kind of a verb is fly? Why? 

When I say, The boys fly 
their kite, how is the verb fly 
used here? 

It is used in a causative 
sense; thus, "The boys cause 
the kite to fly." 

What kind of a verb is fly in this sentence? 

A transitive verb, because it takes an object, kite. 

Will you give other examples of this kind? 

Walk your horse over this bridge; He works his men 

too hard. 

The horse ran down the hill. What kind of a verb is ran? 
Why? The horse ran a race. What kind of a verb is ran here? 

Ban is here a transitive verb, because it takes an object, 
race. 

What can you remark of this object? 

The object is akin to the verb in meaning ; ran and race. 

Give other examples of this kind. 

He lived a happy life and died a peaceful death. 

They talked foolishly. What kind of a verb is talked f Why? 
When I say, They talked the hours away, how is talked used here? 

It is used transitively, and takes an object, hours. 
What principle can you give for the last three cases? 
An intransitive verb may become transitive — 
1. When used in a causative sense ; as, "He trotted his 
horse over the bridge;." i. e., caused the horse to trot, etc. 



132 CLASSES OF VERBS. 



2. With an object akin to the verb in meaning; as, "He 



ran a race." 



3. In some poetic expressions, to give animation and 
boldness to the style; as, "They talked the hours away;" 
"Look danger in the face." 

A man soon becomes old ; this dress becomes the girl. What 
kind of a verb is becomes in each sentence? 

It is intransitive in the first and transitive in the second. 
What principle can you give for such instances? 
The same verb may be transitive or intransitive in dif- 
ferent meanings. 

Will you give other examples of this kind? 
Intransitive — He succeeds in all his plans. 
Transitive — The prince succeeds the king. 

Tell in which of these sentences the verb is transitive and in 
which intransitive: 

f She looked pleasantly upon him. 

I She looked daggers at him. 

f The thunder rolls heavily overhead. 

I The girl rolls her hoop. 

f The general swam his horse across the river. 

I The sailor swam from the sinking ship. 

f His bosom burns with fierce anger. 

I The fire burns the wood. 

f The man set five trees in a row. 

I The sun set behind a cloud last night. 

f The men stood around the fire. 

I The soldiers stood their ground bravely. 

Exercise 80. 

Tell which verbs are transitive and which intransitive, and name the 
objects of the former: 

1. Farmers plow the ground. 2. The boy fell from the tree 
and broke his leg. 3. The sun shines upon the earth. 4. How 
fast the grass grows! 5. The little bird sits upon the tree and 
sings a sweet song. 6. Good children love and obey their parents. 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 133 

7. The birds fly higher than the boys fly their kite. 8. The dog 
runs and jumps and barks at the cat. 9. Bang went the gun, and 
away flew the bird. 10. The rain falls and waters the thirsty soil. 
11. The army marched rapidly to the field. 12. The boy struck 
the horse, and the horse ran away. 13. The captain marched his 
men to the edge of the ditch. 14. The hog broke down the gate, 
and then went into the garden and ate the cabbages. 15. The men 
stood their ground bravely, for their captain stood before them. 

EXERCISE 81. 

Put a transitive verb in 1, and an intransitive in 2: 
1. The dog . .1. . the pig, and the pig . .2. . (The dog bit the 
pig, and the pig squealed). 2. The horse . .2. . over the fence. 
3. The hunter . . 1 . . the fox in a trap. 4. We . . l . . tea and coffee. 
5. The dog . .2. . at the boy, and the boy . .2. . away. 6. The 
woodman . . 1 . . the wood, and the fire . . 1 . . it. 7. How green 
the fields . .2. .! 8. The blind man . .2. . slowly, and . .1. . his 
way with his cane. 9. The men . .2. . in the day-time, and . .2. . 
at night. 10. God . .1. . the world and all things that . .2. . in it. 
11. Who . .1. . that fine house which . .2. . upon the hill? 12. A 
burglar . .2. . into the house and . 1. . a gold watch. 

Exercise 82. 

Write three sentences with each of these nouns : the first containing a 
transitive verb, the second an intransitive, the third both : 

c Tran., The cow gives milk. 

1. Cow. Ex. :i Intran., The cow goes to the pasture. 

I Both, The cow lies down and chews her cud. 

2. Sheep. 4. Girls. 6. Earth. 8. Sun. 10. Men. 

3. Teacher. 5. Snow. 7. Soldier. 9. King. 11. Ship. 

12. Write an original sentence containing an intransitive verb 
used as transitive. 13. One containing a transitive verb used as 
intransitive. 14. Two containing the same verb, transitive in one 
and intransitive in the other. 



134 



TENSE. 




PROPERTIES OF VERBS— TENSE. 

1. This boy now walks very fast; he has walked two 
miles to-day. He walked five miles yesterday, and he had 
walked three miles before that time. He will walk two 
miles more to-morrow, and then he will have walked in all 
twelve miles. 

2. Now these verbs, walks, ivalked, will ivalk, etc., tell 
what the boy does, and they also show when he does it; 
thus, walks shows that he performs the act now; walked, 
that he did it in some past time; and will walk, that he will 
do it in some future time. 



TENSE. 135 

3. Thus we see that verbs have a certain property to 
indicate time. This property is called Tense. 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

TENSE. 

How many natural divisions of time are there? 
Three ; present, past, and future. 

When I say, The boy walks, or The boy is walking, what 
time is referred to? 

Present time, because it indicates what is now 

taking place. 

What does the word tense mean? 

Tense means time. 

In what tense then would you call the verb walks in the 
sentence, The boy walks, and why? 

Walks is in the present tense, because it refers 

to present time. 

The girl writes. In what tense 
is writes f Why ? What then does 
the present tense of verbs express? 

The present tense repre- 
sents the act or state as 
taking place in present time. 

Give other examples of the present tense. 

The sun shines; the boys play ; the birds build 
their nests. 

Write two sentences about the cubs in the picture, 
containing verbs in the present tense. 




136 TENSE. 

When I say, The boy has walked two miles, what does 
the sentence imply? 

That he has now finished or completed two miles. 

What time is referred to? 

Present time. 

What does perfect mean? 

Perfect means finished or complete. 

Since has walked refers to present time, and also repre- 
sents the act as finished, in what tense would you call it? 

Has walked is in the present-perfect tense. 

I have written a letter. In what tense is have written f 
Why? What then does the present-perfect tense express? 

The present-perfect tense represents the act or 
state as finished at the present time. 

Give other examples of the present-perfect tense? 

School has closed; I have dined; my uncle has 

bought a horse. 

Write two sentences about the picture of the cubs con- 
taining verbs in the present-perfect tense. 

When I say, The boy walked, what time is referred to? 

Any past time; since you can say he walked 

yesterday, or last week, or last year. 

In what tense then is the verb walked® 

Walked is in the past tense, because it refers to 

past time. 

Mary went to school. In what tense is went? Why? 
What then does the past tense express? 

The past tense represents that the act or state 

took place in past time. 




TENSE. 137 

Give other examples of the past tense. 
The bird sang; the cars ran off the track; I 
visited Europe last summer. 

Write two sentences about the picture, containing verbs 
in the past tense. 

When I say, The boy liad walked & 

a mile before dinner, what is implied ? 



That he had finished or 
completed the action at that 
time. 

What time is referred to? 

Past time. 

Since had walked refers to past time, and also represents 
the action as finished, in what tense would you call it? 

Had walked is in the past-perfect tense. 

The girls had played an hour when I called them. In 
what tense is had played f Why? 

What does the past-perfect tense express? 

The past -perfect tense represents the act or 
state as finished at some past time, either men- 
tioned or implied. 

Give other examples of the past-perfect tense. 

We had dined before he came; he had slept an 
hour when I awoke him. 

Write two sentences about the picture of the cubs con- 
taining verbs in the past-perfect tense. 

When I say, The boy will ivalk, what time is referred to? 

Any future time; as, to-morrow, next week, 

or the next minute. 



138 TENSE. 

In what tense then would you call the verb will wallet 

Will walk is in the future tense] because it refers 

to future time. 

I shall visit my cousin to-morrow. In what tense is 
shall visit t Why? What then does the future tense ex- 
press? _ 

The future tense rep- ~" _ "~ 

evening ; it will rain "^ ^^l 
to-morrow. 

Write three sentences about this picture containing 
verbs in the future tense. 

When I say, The boy will have walked twelve miles when 
he reaches home, what do I mean? 

That the act will be finished at that time. 

What time is referred to? 

Future time, since the boy has not yet reached 

home. 

Since will have ivalked refers to future time, and also 
indicates that the act will be finished at that time, in what 
tense would you call it? 

Will have walked is in the future-perfect tense. 

The sun will have set before he arrives. In what tense 
is will have set t Why ? 



TENSE. 139 

What does the future-perfect tense express? 

The future-perfect tense represents the act or 
state as finished at some future time, either men- 
tioned or implied. 

Give other examples of the future-perfect tense. 

I shall have finished my letter by noon; the 

mail will have gone before you reach the office. 

Write two sentences about the last picture containing 
verbs in the future-perfect tense. 

LESSON XXXIX. 
TENSE (Continued). 

What is tense? 

Tense is that property of the verb by which 
it indicates time. 

How many tenses have verbs? 

Six; present, present-perfect, past, past-perfect, 
future, future-perfect. 

Will you define and illustrate each? 

The present tense represents the act or state 
as taking place in present time; as, "The boy walks" 

The present-perfect tense represents the 
act or state as finished at the present time; as, 
"The boy has walked two miles." 

The past tense represents that the act or 
state took place in past time; as, "The boy 
walked yesterday." 



140 TENSE. 

The past-perfect tense represents the act 
or state as finished at some past time, either men- 
tioned or implied; as, "The boy had walked two 
miles when I met him." 

The future tense represents that the act or 
state will take place in future time; as, "The boy 
will walk to-morrow." 

The future-perfect tense represents the act 
or state as finished at some future time, either men- 
tioned or implied; as, "The boy will have walked 
twelve miles w r hen he reaches home." 

By what signs may these tenses be known? 

The present by its having no sign except the 
simple form of the verb; as, "I write; he writes? 

The present-perfect by the sign have or has; 
as, "I have written; he has written." 

The past by the ending ed in regular verbs; 
as, "I ivalked;" and by a change of form from 
the present in irregular verbs; as, "I wrote? 

The past-perfect by the sign had; as, "I had 
written." 

The future by the sign shall or will; as, "I 
shall write; he will write." 

The future-perfect by the sign shall have or will 

have; as, "I shall have written; he will have 

written." 

Name the tense of each of these verbs: ivent, see, loves, 
have gone, ivill try, had seen, will have loved, learn, saw, shall 
have flayed. 




TENSE. 141 

Tell the tense of each verb in the following sentences : 
I wrote a letter; when I had written it I sealed it. My 
brother will carry it to the 
mail-boat; he has started 
with it, but I fear the boat 
will have gone before he 
arrives. 

Write a sentence about 
the picture containing the 
present tense of feed. One 
containing the present-per- 
fect of hatch. One contain- 
ing the past of see. One 
containing the past -perfect of go. One containing the 
future of grow. One containing the future-perfect of fly. 

What are the natural divisions of time? 

Present j past, and future. 

In how many ways may an act be represented in each 
division ? 

In two ways; as continuing or as completed at 
that time. 

To how many tenses do these several ways give rise? 

To two in each division of time; making six 
in all. 

Will you illustrate this division? 
g | f Present tense, He walks, or is tvalking. 
Ph h } Pres.-perf. tense, He has walked. 
g g j Past tense, He walked, or was tvalking. 

^ S 1 Past-perf. tense, He ^#6/ walked. 
h | f Future tense, He ewT? wa^r. 
^h \ Fut.-perf. tense, He «w7? Aa#£ walked. 



142 TENSE. 

Note.— The author has given the usual number of tenses, although our 
verb has of itself only two, the present and the past, unless the perfect 
participle of certain irregular verbs is called a tense. The other so-called 
tenses are formed by placing before the infinitive or participle the present 
and past tenses of another verb. To call a combination of four different 
verbs, as " will have been ruled," a tense of ruled is not "parsing " in any 
proper sense of the term. The properties and relations of the words are 
best shown by parsing each word separately ; thus, will, a verb pres. indie, 
agreeing with the subject; have, a verb pres. infin. depending upon will; 
been, a participle perl from the verb be, referring to the subject; and ruled, 
a participle perf. passive from the verb rule, and referring to the subject. 

USE OF THE TENSES. 
What special uses has the present tense? 

1. To express what is customary or always true; as, "I 
rise at five o'clock;" "God is eternal." 

2. In lively narrations to impart animation to the style ; 
as, "The soldiers rush on and scale the walls." 

3. It sometimes refers to future time; as, "When he 
comes he will hear the news." 

What does the present-perfect tense express? When may 
this tense be used in speaking of past events? 

When the act of the verb is limited by no specified 
interval of past time, but conveys an allusion to the present, 
as in the following cases : 

1. When the subject still exists; as, "The general (if still 
alive) has fought many battles." 

2. When the act or state continues to the present time; 
as, "This house (if still standing) has stood twenty years." 

3. When the result still exists; as, "Cicero has written 
orations (if they still exist)." 

When can the present-perfect tense not be used in speaking 
of past events? 

1. When the act of the verb is limited by a specified 
interval of past time; as, "The general fought (not has 
fought) many battles in the last war." 

2. When there is no allusion to the present time in the 
subject, the act, or its result; as, "Napoleon (who is dead) 



TENSE. 143 

fought many battles;" "That house (not standing now) stood 
ten years ;" "Cicero wrote poems (which do not now exist.)" 

May this tense refer to future time? 

Yes; when used in a clause which is subordinate to 
another in the future tense; as, "He will come when he 
has finished his work." 

Correct the errors in the following, and give the principle: 

1. God was eternal. 2. Our teacher taught us that the earth 
was round. 3. Washington has gained many victories. 4. I have 
visited Europe last summer. 

Exercise 83. 

Tell the tense of each of the following verbs: 

1. The cook bakes bread. 2. The train will have gone before 
you reach the depot. 3. Mary recited her lesson correctly. 4. My 
cousin will visit us to-morrow. 5. The boat had started when I 
reached the wharf. 6. The merchants have received their new 
goods. 7. I called for the money, but the clerk had gone. 8. He 
left the city yesterday, and will return to-morrow> 9. By the 
time you reach home the sun will have set. 

Exercise 84. 

Supply verbs ; a present tense in 1, a present-perfect in 2, a past in 3, 
a past-perfect in 4, a future in 5, a future-perfect in 6: 

1. The birds . .1. . their nests in spring (The birds build their 
nests in spring). 2. The fox . .4. . six miles when the dogs . .3. . 
him. 3. You . .5. . the boat; it . .3. . at six o'clock. 4. The com- 
mittee . .6. . its session by nine o'clock. 5. John . .1. . diligently, 
and he . . 5 . . a wise man. 6. I . . 3 . . the check, but the bank 
. . 4 . . payment. 

Exercise 85. 



Write six sentences with each verb, using it in each tense: 

Present, The girls play in the garden. 
Pres.-perf., We have played that game to-day. 
Past, The boys played ball yesterday. 

Past-perf., We had played an hour when the teacher called. 
Future, We shall play cricket to-morrow. 
I. Fut.-perf., They will have played six games before night. 

2. Kun. 4. Love. 6. Know. 8. Drive. 10. Fly. 

3. Sing. 5. Catch. 7. Commence. 9. Go. 11. Keceive. 



1. Play. 
Example : 



144 



MOOD. 



iV-7. 




PROPERTIES OF VERBS— MOOD. 

1. When I say, "The boys play" I mean that the act 
of playing really takes place ; that is, I declare the fact. 

2. When I say, "Play, boys," I express a command or 
request; and when I say, "Boys love to play," I express the 
act as objective and unlimited by any agent. 

3. These different ways of representing an act or state 
are called Moods. 

LESSON XL. 
MOODS. 
When I say, The boys play, what is my purpose? 
To declare some fact; viz., that the boys play. 
What does the word mood mean? 
Mood means manner. 
What does indicative mean? 
Indicative means indicating or declaring. 
In what mood then would you call the verb play in the 
sentence, The boys playt 

In the indicative mood, because it declares a fact. 



MOOD. 145 

The girls have recited their lessons. In what mood is 
have recited f Why? What then does the indicative mood 
express ? 

The indicative mood declares the act or state as 
a fact, or asks it as a question. 

Give other examples of the indicative mood, 

We shall receive a letter to-morrow; the dog 
barks; has the train arrived? 

Write two sentences about the picture containing verbs 
in the indicative mood. 

When I say, Play, boys, what 
does play express here? 

It expresses a command or 
request. 

What does imperative mean? 

Imperative means command- 
ing. 

In what mood then would you call play above? 

In the imperative mood, because it expresses a 

command. 

Give me my book. In what mood is givef Why? 
What besides a command may this mood express? 

An entreaty r , as "Oh! save my child;" a permis- 
sion^ as " Let me go." 

What then does the imperative mood express? 

The imperative mood expresses a command, an 
entreaty, or a permission. 

Give other examples of this mood. 

Soldiers, stand firm ; tvalk in, gentlemen. 

10 




146 MOOD. 

When I say, Boys love to play; Ihve to play; how is the 
verb to play used here? 

In a general manner, unlimited by the person 
or number of a subject. 

What does infinitive mean? 

Infinitive means unlimited. 

In what mood then may Ave call to play above? 

In the infinitive mood. 

He intends to buy a house. In what mood is to buy? 
What does the infinitive mood express? 

The infinitive mood expresses the act or state 
in a general manner, unlimited by the person or 
number of the subject. 

Give other examples of this mood. 
I desire to learn; he went to see his friends; 
I heard him speak. ___ 

Write two sentences 
about the picture contain- 
ing verbs in the imperative 
mood. Two containing "1 
verbs in the infinitive mood. 

What are moodsl 

Moods are the dif- 
ferent modes of repre- 
senting the act or state 
expressed by the verb. 

How many moods have verbs, and what are they? 
Three; indicative, imperative, and infinitive. 




MOOD. 147 

Will you now define and illustrate each mood? 

The indicative mood declares the act or 
state as a fact, or asks it as a question ; as, " The 
sun shines;" "Has he gone?" 

The imperative mood expresses the act or 
state as a command, an entreat?/, or a permission ; 
as, "Remember thy Creator." 

The infinitive mood expresses the act or 
state in a general manner, unlimited by the person 
or number of the subject; as, "We desire to 
improve" 

SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

By what signs may the several moods be known? 

The indicative by its having no sign except simply 
declaring or asking something; as, "The rain/afis;" "Has 
the sun set?" 

The imperative by its sub- 
ject thou or you, which is fj 
generally omitted ; as, "Go j 
(you) to your seats." 

The infinitive by the sign 
to (to be parsed with the 
verb), either expressed or % 
implied; as, "They wish to 
sleep;" "I heard the clock J 
(to) strike." 

The captain ordered the soldiers to march. In what mood is 
ordered? In what mood is to march? Why? 

Oh! try to save the child! In what mood is try? "Why? In 
what mood is to save? Why? 

Write three sentences about the picture, using verbs in the 
three moods— -first, the indicative; second, the imperative; third, 
the infinitive. 




148 MOOD. 

What other moods do some grammarians give? 

A potential mood and a subjunctive mood. 

"What can you say of the potential mood? 

It is a combination of the indicative and infinitive; 
thus, in the sentence "I can rule," can is a verb by itself, 
and declares as forcibly as any verb; can is therefore in 
the indicative mood, while rule is in the infinitive mood 
without the sign to. The same is true of the other poten- 
tial forms, "I may rule," "I might have ruled," etc. 

What can you say of the subjunctive mood? 

It is now seldom employed, the indicative form being 
used in its stead; thus, the subjunctive form, "If he come, 
I shall see him," is rarely used in writing and more rarely 
in speaking. The indicative form, "If he comes, I shall 
see him," is preferred. 

What may be said of such expressions as "Were he here," etc.; 
" Were I in your place," etc.? 

They are inverted forms for "If he was (were) here," 
etc.; "If I was (were) in your place," etc. The reason 
that were is used instead of was in these forms seems to be 
because was would imply that the question was asked ; as, 
"Was he here?" etc. 

What may these inverted expressions be called? 

The hypothetical form of the verb, since they always 
imply a hypothesis without expressing it; thus, "Were he 
here" is equivalent to "If he was (were) here," etc. 

Note.— The verb be presents the only form that has any claim to the 
subjunctive mood ; this is the form ivere in the third person singular in 
such expressions as "If he were sick, I should know it;" and this in the 
language of to-day is indicative ; thus, " If he was sick, I should know it." 
An examination of the following examples will show how slight a claim 
even the verb be presents to a subjunctive mood : " If he be sick, I shall 
know it ;" "If he is sick, I shall know it ;" " If he were sick, I should know 
it;" "If he was sick, I should know it." In the first of these sentences be 
is the real indicative present of the verb be; the forms am. art, is, etc., having 
been derived from a different Saxon verb. All the futurity that be expresses 



MOOD. 149 

it "borrows from the shall which follows. Is may express this borrowed 
futurity as well as be, and so may any other present form ; thus, " If he is 
sick to-morrow, I shall know it ;" "If he comes to-morrow, I shall see him." 
The peculiar use of were in the third sentence is also borrowed indirectly 
from the should which follows. It is thrown into the past tense, though it 
refers to present time, because should, upon which it depends, is in the past 
tense, while referring to present time. Were, it is true, denies the present 
sickness of its subject, but not more strongly than should denies the 
present knowledge of its subject. Was sick implies the same denial, and 
both of them have it by implication from should. The indicative forms is 
and ivas are now more generally used ; thus, " If he is sick, I shall know 
it;" and "If he .was sick, I should know it." 

Exercise 86. 

Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences: 

1. Fruits ripen in the autumn. 2. The ladies sang, and played 
upon the piano. 3. Have you learned to read? 4. It had begun 
to rain when we started. 5. Unless it rains very soon our plants 
will wither. 6. Come in, girls; school has begun. 7. He talks as 
if he was a king. 8. Take care lest you fall. 9. My friends, spend 
not your time in idleness,, but strive to improve every moment. 
10. Lord remember me when thou com est into thy kingdom. 

Exercise 87. 

Put a verb in the indicative mood in 1, one in the imperative in 2, and 
one in the infinitive in 3: 

1. John . .1. . a large fish (John caught a large fish). 2. The 

river . . 1. . under the bridge. 3. Charles, . .2. . me your book; I 

wish . . 3 . . my lesson. 4. I . . 1 . . the clock . . 3 . . 5. My brother 

. . 1. . to the city yesterday . .3. . his friend. 6. Boys, . .2. . a few 

minutes; I am almost ready . .3. . 7. . .2. . . .3. . something 

useful everv dav. 8. . . 2 . . us . . 3 . . home before it . . 1 . . 



Exercise 88. 

Write three sentences with each verb, using it in each mood*. 
r Indicative, The boys go to school. 
1. Go. Ex.:^ Imperative, Go to your work, sir. 

I Infinitive, I intend to go to Europe next summer. 



2. Give. 


4. Tell. 


6. Make. 


8. Do. 


10. Study. 


3. Love. 


5. Come. 


7. Catch. 


9. See. 


11. Remember. 



150 



VOICE. 




PROPERTIES OF VERBS— VOICE. 



1. Of this picture we may say, "The man drives the 
horse," or "The horse is driven by the man." 

2. These two sentences convey the same meaning, al- 
though the verb in each is in a different form, and has a 
different subject. In one the agent or doer, man, is the 
subject, and is represented as acting; as, "The man drives," 
etc. In the other the object, horse, is the subject, and is 
represented as acted upon; thus, "The horse is driven," etc. 

3. These different forms of the verb are called Voices. 
They will be the subject of the next lesson. 



VOICE. 151 

LESSON XLL 

VOICE. 

In the sentence, The man drives the horse, how is the 
subject, man, represented? 

As performing the act of the verb, or as active. 

What is meant by voice in grammar. 

Voice is a property of the verb by which it 

shows the active or passive state of its subject. 

In what voice is drives in the sentence, The man drives 
the horse? 

Drives is in the active voice, because it repre- 
sents its subject as acting. 

The horse draws the cart. In what voice is draws? 
Give other examples of the active voice. 

The sun warms the earth; the dog caught the 

rabbit. 

In the sentence, The horse is driven by the man, how is 
the subject, horse, represented? 

As receiving or suffering the act of the verb. 
What does passive mean? 
Passive meang suffering or receiving. 
In what voice then is is driven, and why? 
Is driven is in the passive voice, because it rep- 
resents its subject as passive. 

The cart is drawn by the horse. In what voice is is 
drawn f Why? Give other examples of the passive voice. 

The earth is warmed by the sun; the letter 

was written by the boy ; the thief has been caught. 



152 VOICE. 

What is always the subject in the active voice? 

The agent or doer of the act expressed by the 
verb. 

What is the subject in the passive voice? 

The object of the action. 

What verbs only can have a passive voice? 

Only transitive verbs, because they only admit 
of objects. 

How many voices have transitive verbs? 

Two; the active and the passive. 

Will you define and illustrate each? 

The active voice represents the subject as 
performing the act of the verb ; 
as, "The boy tore the book.' 5 

The passive voice rep- 
resents the subject as suffering 
the act of the verb; as, "The 
stone is thrown by the boy." 

Write two sentences about the 
picture containing verbs in the passive voice. Two con- 
taining verbs in the active voice. 




Columbus discovered America. In what voice is discovered? 
How may the sentence be changed to the passive form? 

By making the object in the active the subject in the 
passive; thus, i( America was discovered by Columbus." 

Men build houses. Change this sentence to the passive form. 
What verbs have the passive voice? 



VOICE. 



153 



When may an intransitive verb be used in the passive voice? 

1. When its subject is akin to the verb in meaning; as, 
"The race was run." 

2. When it is combined, with a preposition which in the 
active voice would govern the subject of the passive; as, 
"I ivas fired at by the sentinel." 

How is the active voice sometimes used? 

The active voice is sometimes used in a passive sense ; 
as, "Butter sells (is sold) at fifty cents a pound;" "This 
cloth wears well." 

When is the passive voice 
a convenient form of expres- 
sion? 

When we wish to state 
an act without naming the 
actor ; as, " My umbrella has 
been taken" 

Write a sentence about the 
picture containing the verb 
draw in the active voice. One 
containing it in the passive. 
Write the same with rides. Write the same with convey. The 
boat draws easilv on the water. How is draws used here? 




Note.— The status of voice does not seem to the author wholly satisfac- 
tory. The English verb of itself, aside from the participle, can not be said 
to have a passive voice. We make a passive voice by joining the participle 
of a verb to some form of the verb be; thus, " He is ruled," " He has been 
ruled." It is best, in the author's view, to parse the words separately, 
giving the participle alone the property of voice, according as it represents 
the subject as the doer or the receiver of the action. That the verb be does 
not always indicate the passive voice is shown in the expressions "He is 
ruling." "He was writing." In the sentences " He is ruling" and "He is 
ruled " it is the participle alone which indicates the active or passive state 
of the subject. The mode of parsing proposed here and under " tense " is 
preferable for several reasons : First, it is more simple ; second, it is more 
analytic, and shows better the relations which words sustain to one another; 
third, it enables us to parse forms which can not be parsed by the old 
method, and which have therefore been held as incorrect. Such expres- 
sions as "He is gone," "His money was all gone," "The train had been 
gone an hour," " Babylon is fallen," " The days are come " " The years are 



154 VOICE. 

fled," seem to be well established. They are due to the fact that our 
perfect participle active is not distinct in form from the perfect passive. 
These forms are parsed with no difficulty in the manner proposed ; thus 
in the sentence "He is gone," is is a verb agreeing with he, and gone a 
perfect participle active referring to he. 

Exercise 89. 

Tell which verbs are in the active voice and which in the passive: 
1. Farmers raise corn. 2. The corn was ground by the miller. 

3. John borrowed his sister's book, which was covered with cloth. 

4. This ring w T as given to me by my cousin Mary. 5. Posts were 
driven into the ground, and upon these they built their houses. 

6. The waves rocked the ship which was anchored in the bay. 

7. The soldier fought bravely, but was at last captured. 8. The 
house will be consumed before the firemen arrive. 9. This fine 
dwelling is owned by Mr. Smith, who bought it last year. 10. The 
old oak, which had withstood the storms of a century, was at last 
uprooted by the tempest. 

Exercise 90. 

Change the verbs to the passive voice so as to preserve the same sense : 

1. Romulus founded Rome. 2. Ships transport goods across 

the ocean. 3. The Chinese cultivate the tea-plant. 4. The hail 

will destroy our vines. 5. The moon raises tides upon the ocean. 

6. Wars have caused many miseries. 

Change the verbs to the active voice so as to preserve the same sense: 
7. The earth is warmed by the sun. 8. Trees and houses are 
often struck by lightning. 9. Many large islands have been 
formed by the little coral polyp. 10. Water is changed into ice 
by cold. 11. Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried by an erup- 
tion of Mt. Vesuvius. 

Exercise 91. 

Write two sentences with each of these verbs, using the active voice 
in one and the passive in the other: 

, m, 1? • I Active, The boys throw stones at the frogs. 

I Passive, The man was thrown from his carriage. 

2. Catch. 4. Build. 6. Write. 8. Sell. 10. Buy. 

3. Make. 5. Find. 7. Strike. 9. Give. 11. See. 

12. Write an original sentence having an intransitive verb 
used in the passive voice. 13. Write one containing the active 
voice used in a passive sense. 



PERSON AND NUMBER. 155 

LESSON XLII. 
PERSON AND NUMBER. 

We may say I love, but not thou love. Why? 

Because the pronoun thou is of the second 

person, and the verb must change its form to 

agree with this person; thus, I love; thou lovest. 

Since lovest is the form of the verb peculiar to the 
subject thou, of what person is it? 

Lovest is of the second person, because its 

subject, thou , is of that person. 

In the sentence, I write, of what person is write f Why? 
We say also the boy loves, but not the boys loves. Why? 

Because the subject hoys is of the plural num- 
ber, and the verb must change its form to suit 
this number; thus, The hoy loves; the hoys love. 
Of what number is love in the sentence, The boys lovef 
Love is of the plural number, to agree with its 
subject, hoys, which is of that number. 

What two properties then have verbs in common with 
their subjects? 

Person and numher. 

How many properties have verbs, and what are they? 

Five; tense, mood, voice, person, and numher. 

How many tenses have verbs, and what are they? 

Six; present, present-perfect, past, past-perfect, 

future, future-perfect. 

How many moods are there, and what are they? 

Three; indicative, imperative, infinitive. 



15G REGULAR AXD IRREGULAR VERBS. 

How many voices have verbs, and what are they? 

Two; active and passive. 

How many persons, and what are they? 

Three; first, second, and third. 

How many numbers, and what are they? 

Two; singular and plural. 

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Which parts of a verb are called the principal parts f 

The principal parts are the present (the 
form given in dictionaries.) , the past, and the 
perfect participle (the form which makes sense 
with having or having been before it). 

Why are these called the principal parts! 

Because all the other parts may be derived 
from them. 

Will you give the principal parts of the verb rulef 

Present rale, past ruled, perfect participle ruled. 

Give the principal parts of call. 

Pres. call j past called, perf. part, called. 

How are the past tense and perfect participle of these 
verbs formed? 

Those of ride by adding d and those of call 

by adding ed to the present. 

Since this is the regular manner of forming the past 
tense and perfect participle of English verbs, what are 
such verbs as rule and call called? 

Regular verbs. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 157 

What then are regular verbs? 

Regular verbs are those which form their 
past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
to the present. 

When is d alone added, and when ed? 

When the present ends in e, d alone is added; 
as, save j saved, saved; otherwise ed is added; as, 
fail, failed, failed. 

Give other examples of regular verbs. 
Move, moved, moved; defend, defended, de- 
fended. 

We say, I take, I took, (having) taken. What then are 
the principal parts of the verb take? 

Pres. take, past took, perf. part, taken. 

Since these parts are not formed regularly like those of 
love, call, etc., what kind of a verb would you call take? 

An irregular verb. 

What then are irregular verbs? 

Irregular verbs are those which do not form 
their past tense and perfect participle by adding d 
or ed to the present. 

Will you give other examples of irregular verbs? 

See, saw, seen; write, wrote, written; catch, 
caught, caught; go, went, gone. 

Into what classes are verbs divided, and what are they? 

Regular and irregular , according to their form; 

transitive and intransitive, according to their nature. 



158 CONJUGATION. 

LESSON XLIII. 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

What does conjugate mean? 

To yoke or combine together. 

What then is meant by the conjugation of a verb? 

A combination of its different forms, so as to exhibit its 
various properties in a regular scheme. 

What is a regular verb? What is an irregular verb? Will 
you give the principal parts of the irregular verb be? 

Pres. be, past was, perf. part. been. 
What can you say of this verb? 

It is the most irregular verb in the language, and is 
used to help form the passive voice of all transitive verbs. 

CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB "BE." 
Indicative Mood. 

SINGULAR. *MMHT TENSE. pLXJRAL> 

1st Person, I am, 1st Person, "We are, 

2d Person, Thou art, 2d Person, You are, 

3d Person, He is; 3d Person, They are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been, 1. "We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. Y T ou were, 

3. He was; 3. They were. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 



CONJUGATION. 159 

SINGULA*. ™ TUKE TENSE - PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be; 3. They shall or will be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been; 3. They will have been. 

Imperative Mood. 
2. Be (thou), or do (thou) be; 2. Be (you), or do (you) be. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present, To be ; Pres.-perf, To have been. 

Participles. 

Imperfect, Being; Perfect, Been or having been. 

Exercise 92. 

Give a synopsis of the verb be, with, the following pronouns, as in the 
example : 

1. I. 2. Thou. 3. He. 4. We. 5. You. 6. They. 

Example: Synopsis with thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, Thou art. Pres.-perf., Thou hast been. 

Past, Thou wast. Past-perf., Thou hadst been. 

Future, Thou wilt be. Fut.-perf, Thou wilt have been. 

Exercise 93. 

Tell the tense, mood, person, and number of each verb, according to 
the example: 

1. This lady is as good as she is beautiful (Ex.: is; pres., ind., 

third, sing.) 2. It will be fine weather to-morrow. 3. My father 

has heen sick, but he is better now. 4. The weather was very 

unpleasant, and had been so for a week. 5. The apples are ripe, 

and more plentiful than they were last year. 6. My father will 

have been dead three years to-morrow. 7. The soldiers are very 

weak, having been so long without food. 8. Being unwell at the 



160 CONJUGATION. 

time, it was impossible for me to be present. 9. Be quick, boys; 
we have been ready this half hour. 10. He is too young to have 
been a soldier at that time. 11. Though our days be few and 
full of trouble, we shall be happy at last. 

LESSON XLIV. 

CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Define the active voice of verbs. Define the passive 
voice. How is the passive voice formed? 

The passive voice is formed by the perfect 
participle of a transitive verb joined to some part 
of the verb be. 

How many parts has the verb be, and what are they? 

Ten; am, art, are, be, been, being, is, was, wast, 
were. 

CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB "RULE." 
Indicative Mood. 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. 

1st Person, I rule, 1st Person, I am ruled, 

'Id Person, Thou rulest, 2d Person, Thou art ruled, 

3d Person, He rules; 3d Person, He is ruled; 

PLURAL. PLURAL. 

1. We rule, 1. We are ruled, 

2. You rule, 2. You are ruled, 

3. They rule. 3. They are ruled. 

SINGULAR. PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. gINGULAR> . 

1. I have ruled, 1. I have been ruled, 

2. Thou hast ruled, 2. Thou hast been ruled, 



3. He has ruled; 3. He has been ruled 



PLURAL. PLURAL. 

1. We have ruled, 1. We have been ruled, 

2. You have ruled\ 2. You have been ruled, 

3. They have ruled. 3. They have been ruled. 



CONJUGATION. 



161 



Active Voice. 

SINGULAR. 

1. I ruled, 

2. Thou ruledst, 

3. He ruled; 

PLURAL. 

1. We ruled, 

2. You ruled, 

3. They ruled. 



Passive Voice. 



PAST TENSE. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I was ruled, 

2. Thou wast ruled, 

3. He was ruled; 

PLURAL. 

1. We were ruled, 

2. You were ruled, 

3. They were ruled. 



SINGULAR. PAST-PERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR> 

1. I had ruled, 1. I had been ruled, 

2. Thou hadst ruled, . 2. Thou hadst been ruled, 

3. He had ruled : 



PLURAL. 

1. We had ruled, 

2. You had ruled, 

3. They had ruled. 



3. He had been ruled; 

PLURAL. 

1 . We had been ruled, 

2. You had been ruled, 

3. They had been ruled 



SINGULAR. 

1. I shall or will rule, 

2. Thou s halt or wilt rule, 

3. He shall or will rule; 

PLURAL. 

1. We shall or will rule, 

2. You shall or will rule, 

3. They shall or will rule. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I shall or will be ruled, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled, 

3. He shall or will be ruled ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We shall or will be ruled, 

2. You shall or will be ruled, 

3. They shall or will be ruled. 



SINGULAR. 

I shall have ruled, 
Thou wilt have ruled, 
He will have ruled; 

PLURAL. 

We shall have ruled, 
You will have ruled, 
They will have ruled. 



FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I shall have been ruled, 

2. Thou wilt have been ruled, 

3. He will have been ruled; 

PLURAL. 

1. We shall have been ruled, 

2. You will have been ruled, 

3. They will have been ruled. 



11 



162 CONJUGATION. 



Imperative Mood. 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR . 

2. Rule (thou), or do (thou) 2. Be (thou) ruled, or do (thou) 
rule ; be ruled ; 

PLURAL. PLURAL. 

2. Kule (you), or do (you) 2. Be (you) ruled, or do (you) be 
rule. ruled. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present, To rule ; Present, To be ruled ; 

Pres.-perf, To have ruled. Pres.-perf., To have been ruled. 

Participles. 

Imperfect, Ruling; Imperfect, Ruled, or being ruled; 

Perfect, Having ruled, or Perfect, Ruled, or having been 

ruled. ruled. 

Exercise 94. 

Write synopses of these verbs according to the plan on page 159: 

1. Love in act. voice with J. 5. Believe in act. voice with thou. 

2. Call in pass, voice with she. 6. Save in pass, voice with we. 

3. Arrive in act. voice with they. 7. Move in pass, voice with it. 

4. Behave in act. voice with you. 8. Study in act. voice with the boys. 

Exercise 95. 

Name the tense, mood, voice, person, and number of the following 
verbs according to the example: 

1. He has loved. Ex.: has loved; pres.-perf., ind., act., 3d, plural, 

2. I shall try. 11. They were invited. 

3. He will be believed. 12. To have raised. 

4. He had cried. 13. Wait. 

5. I am advised. 14. Having been ordered. 

6. Having been raised. 15. They have dined. 

7. He was offended. 16. They had been deceived. 

8. She will have been invited. 17. Having received. 

9. It happened. 18. It has been prepared. 
10. They will depart. 19. To have been required. 



CONJUGATION. 163 



Exercise 96. 



Write the tense, mood, voice, person, and number of the verbs as in 
the example: 

1. The children play in the yard (Ex.: play; pres., ind., act., 

third, plural). 2. Mary had visited her cousin before her sister 

returned. 3. When the grain has ripened it will he harvested. 

4. Look at that old man walking with a cane. 5. Rome was founded 

by Romulus, who killed his brother Eemus. 6. The grain having 

been harvested, the men will thresh it. 7. The vessel was wrecked, 

but the passengers are believed to have been saved. 8. Listen, 

fellow-citizens, and be persuaded to consider your own interest. 

9. His money will have been wasted long before his habits are 

reformed. 10. I believe that the men have received their money. 

11. The old man still lives, surrounded by kind friends, loving 

all, and loved by all. 12. Having filled their baskets, the boys 

returned, carrying them upon their heads. 13. Determine to 

perform what you promise. 14. Though the trees be stripped of 

their leaves by the wintry blast, they will bloom again in the 

spring. 

Exebcise 97. 

Write two original sentences with each noun, using regular verbs as 
directed : 

1 Dos I *" Pre8 -> ™ d -> pass ' Ex • I ** ^^ e ^ og ^ c ^ a ^ ned at night. 

X 2. Fut., ind., act. " X 2. Our dog will watch the house. 

2 Tree { L Pres --P er f-> ind -> ^ass. 5 Girlg f 1. Past-perf., ind., pass. 

* X 2. Imperf. part, act. ' ' X 2. Pres., ind., act. 

3. Birds -[ L Fut 'P er f-> ind -> act q Corn j L Per ^ part > pa * s - 

1 ( 2. Pres., infin., pass. ' ' X 2. Fut, ind., act. 

4 Horse { L Pas *' ind -' act 7. Thief j L Pres '' infin -> act 

' 1 2. Fut-perf., ind., act. ' ' 1 2. Past, ind., pass. 

LESSON XLV. 

CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

What can we say of the irregular verbs? 
They are the most common and most important verbs 
in our language. 

What must be known in order to conjugate an irregular verb? 
Its principal parts. 



164 CONJUGATION. 

Give the principal parts of the irregular verb take. 
Present take, past took, perfect participle taken. 
How are the other parts derived from them? 
In the same way as those of regular verbs; thus: 

Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1st Person, I take, 1st Person, We take, 

2d Person, Thou takest, 2d Person, You take, 

3d Person, He takes ; 3d Person, They take. 

How is the present-perfect indicative formed? , 

By prefixing have, hast, or has to the perfect participle; 
thus, I have taken, thou hast taken, he has taken,, etc. 

How are the different parts of the past indicative formed? 

The past is one of the principal parts; its parts are 
formed as in regular verbs; thus: 

Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1st Person, I took, 1st Person, We took, 

2d Person, Thou tookst, 2d Person, You took, 

3d Person, He took; 3d Person, They took. 

How is the past-perfect indicative formed? 

By prefixing had or hadst to the perfect participle; thus, 
I had taken, thou hadst taken, he had taken, etc. 

How is the future indicative formed? 

By prefixing shall or will to the present; thus, I shall 
take, thou wilt take, he will take, etc. 

How is the future-perfect indicative formed? 

5y prefixing shall have or will have to the perfect par- 
ticiple; thus, I shall have taken, thou wilt have taken, he 
will have taken, etc. 






IRREGULAR VERBS. 



165 



How are the tenses of the infinitive formed? 

The present by prefixing to to the present indicative; 
thus, To take. The present-perfect by prefixing to have to 
the perfect participle; thus, To have taken. 

How is the imperfect participle formed? 

By adding the termination ng or ing to the present; thus, 
Taking, going. 

Exercise 98. 

Give synopses of the following irregular verbs, according to the plan 
given on page 159, taking their principal parts from the subjoined table : 



1. Draw with thou. 

2. Teach with J. 

3. Fall with we. 

4. Steal with they. 

5. Write with you. 

6. Tear with the boy. 

7. Sink with the ships. 

8. Sing with she. 

9. Do with 7. 



10. Fight with they. 

11. See with Ae. 

12. Stand with itf. 

13. £& with I. 

14. jLte with Ae. 

15. Lay with we. 

16. Eat with *Aey. 

17. Know with Mow. 

18. £e2 with the sun. 



CLASSES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Class I — Those whose past tense and perf. part, are unlike. 
Class II — Those whose past tense and perf. part, are alike. 
Class III — Those in which all the principal parts are alike. 
Class IV — Those which are defective in some of their parts. 

Table of Irregular Verbs. 



Present. 
Arise, 
Awake, 
Be, 

Bear, 

Bear, 

Beat, 

Become, 
Befall, 

Beget, 

Begin, 



CLASS I. 



Past. 

arose, 

awoke, 

was, 
f bore, 
( bare, 

bore, 

beat, 

became, 

befell, 

begot, 

begat, 

began, 



Perf. part. 


Present. 


arisen, 
awaked. 


Bid, 


been. 


Bite, 


born. 


Blow, 


borne. 


Break, 


f beaten, 
X beat. 


Chide, 


become. 


Choose, 


befallen. 




f begotten. 
X begot. 


Cleave, 




begun. 


Come, 



Past. 
(bid, 
\ bade, 

bit, 

blew, 
broke, 

chid, 

chose, 
f cleft, 
-< clove, 
(clave, 

came, 



Perf. part. 

(bid, 
I bidden. 
J bitten, 
I bit. 

blown. 

broken, 
f chidden, 
1 chid. 

chosen. 

cleft, 
cloven. 

come. 



166 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 

Crow, 

Dare, 

Dive, 

Do, 

Draw, 

Drink, 

Drive, 

Eat, 

Fall, 
Fly, 
Forbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 
Freeze, 

Get, 

Give, 
Go, 
Grave, 
Grow, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Know, 
Lade, 

Learn, 

Lie, 
Mow, 

Prove, 
Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 
Rive, 
Run, 
Saw, 

See, 



Past. 

crew, 

durst, 

dove, 

did, 

drew, 

drank, 

drove, 
( ate, 
I eat, 

fell, 

flew, 

forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 
froze, 

got, 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

grew, 
f heaved, 
( hove, 

hewed, 

hid, 

knew, 

laded, 
f learned, 
( learnt, 

lay, 

mowed, 

proved, 

rode, 

j rang, 
( rung, 

rose, 

rived, 

ran, 

sawed, 

saw, 



Perf. part. 

crowed. 

dared. 

dived. 

done. 

drawn. 
f drunk, 
( drank. 

driven. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne, 
f forgotten, 
( forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen, 
/got, 
( gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven. 

grown. 
( heaved, 
{ hoven. 

hewn. 
J hidden, 
(hid. 

known. 

laden. 
( learned, 
\ learnt. 

lain. 

mown. 
( proved, 
\ proven. 

ridden, 

rode. 

rung. 

risen. 

riven. 

run. 

sawn. 

seen. 



Present. 
Seethe, 
Shake, 
Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 
Show, 

Shrink, 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Smite, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sow, 
Speak, 

Spring, 

Steal, 

Stride, 

Strive, 
Strow, 

Swear, 

Swell, 
Take, 
Tear, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Write, 



Past. 

( seethed, 
(sod, 
shook, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared, 
showed, 
f shrunk, 
( shrank, 
slew, 

slid, 

smote, 

( sang.. 
X sung, 
j sank, 
( sunk, 

sowed, 

spoke, 
( sprang, 
( sprung, 

stole, 
( strode, 
( strid, 

strove, 

strowed, 
f swore, 
( sware, 

swelled, 

took, 

tore, 
J thrived, 
( throve, 

threw, 
( trod, 
( trode, 

waxed, 

wore, 
wove, 
wrote, 



Perf. part. 

J seethed, 
( sodden. 

shaken. 
f shaped, 
( shapen. 
J shaved, 
( shaven. 

shorn. 

shown, 
f shrunk, 
( shrunken. 

slain, 
j slidden, 
1 slid. 
J smitten, 
"j smit. 

sung. 

sunk. 

sown, 
spoken. 

sprung. 

stolen. 

stridden, 

strid. 

striven. 

strown. 

sworn. 

swollen. 

taken. 

torn. 

thrived, 

thriven. 

thrown, 
f trodden, 
\ trod, 
j waxed, 
"j waxen. 

worn. 

woven. 

written. 



CLASS II. 



Present. 

Abide, 

Behold, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bind, 

Bleed, 

Bless, 

Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 

Burn, 



Past. 

abode, 

beheld, 

bent, 

bereft, 

besought, 

bound, 

bled, 
( blessed, 
{ blest, 

bred, 

brought, 

built, 
/ burned, 
( burnt, 



Perf. part. 

abode. 

beheld. 

bent. 

bereft. 

besought. 

bound. 

bled. 

blessed, 

blest. 

bred. 

brought. 

built. 

burned, 

burnt. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perf. part 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


f clothed, 
\ clad, 


( clothed, 
( clad. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Dig, 


dug, 


dug. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt. 


Dream, 


f dreamed, 
1 dreamt, 


f dreamed, 
1 dreamt. 


Fped, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 



IRREGULAR VERBS, 



167 



Present. 


Past 


Perf. part 


Present 


Past 


Perf. part 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Gild, 


f gilded, 
I gilt, 


f gilded, 
(gilt. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Gird, 


J girded, 
I girt, 


J girded, 
\ girt. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Smell, 


smelt, 


smelt. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Hang, 


hung, 


hung. 


Spell, 


spelt, 


spelt. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Hold, 


held, 


( held, 
\ holden. 


Spin, 
Stay, 


spun, 
staid, 


spun, 
staid. 


Keep, 
Kneel, 


kept, 
knelt, 


kept, 
knelt. 


Strike, 


struck, 


J struck, 
X stricken. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Stave, 


stove, 


stove. 


Learn, 


( learned, 
1 learnt, 


f learned, 
X learnt. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Sting, 


stung, 
f stunk, 
( stank, 


stung. 


Lend, 
Light, 


lent, 
f lighted, 
(lit, 


lent, 
f lighted, 


Stink, 


stunk. 


1 lit. 


Sweat, 


( sweat, 
( swet, 


f sweat. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost 


\ swet. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Plead, 


f pleaded, 
X plead, 


f pleaded, 
\ plead. 


Think, 
Wake, 


thought, 
woke, 


thought, 
woke. 


Reave, 
Rend, 


reft, 
rent, 


reft, 
( rent, 
( rended. 


Wed, 
Weep, 


( wedded, 
(wed, 
wept, 


j wedded, 
1 wed. 
wept. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought, 
sold. 


Wind, 


wound, 
J worked, 
( wrought, 


wound. 


Sell, 


sold, 


Work, 


( worked, 
( wrought 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Shine, 


shone, 


shone. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 






CLASS III. 






Present 


Past 


Perf. part 


Present. 


Past 


Perf. part 






j beat, 
"j beaten. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Beat, 


beat, 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Bet, 


bet, 


bet. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Burst, 


hurst, 


burst. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Slit, 


slit, 


slit. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Spit, 


f spit, 


f spit, 
( spitten. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


\ spat, 


Knit, 


knit, 


knit. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Sweat, 


sweat, 


sweat. 


Quit, 


quit, 


quit. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Wet, 


wet, 


wet. 






CLASS IV. 






Present. 


Past 


Perf. part 


Present. 


Past 


Perf. part 


Can, 
May, 
Will, 

Must 


could, 
might, 
would, 




Ought, 
Wit, 


ought, 










Beware, 








Quoth, 




Shall' 


ill UOl) 

should, 











168 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Exercise 99. 

Correct the errors in these sentences: 

1. The boy give his sister a book. 2. I knowed he had not 
came yet. 3. I seen the man yesterday. 4. The horse thro wed 
the boy, and the boy's leg was broke by the fall. 5. "Who done 
this? John done it. 6. The tired traveler laid down to rest. 
7. Having took off his coat and lain it upon the grass, he set 
down upon it. 8. The sun sat in a cloud last night. 9. The boys 
have lain their coats upon the ground, and the dog lays beside 
them. 10. The river is froze over. 11. The wind blowed very 
hard, and our apples were all shook off. 12. My father was chose 
captain. 13. The watchman catched the thief who had stole my 
watch. 14. The boy's shoes were almost wore out, and his coat 
was tore into shreds. 15. The man had been throwed from his 
horse, and was laying in the ditch. 16. The cart was drawed by 
a horse, which was drove by a small boy. 17. How much you 
have growed since I seen you last ! 18. The boy had laid down 
upon the grass, and had fell asleep. 19. Henry's piece was 
spoke very well. 20. The apples were all eat up by the hogs. 
23. This letter is wrote very badly, I hope it will be did better 
next time. 21. Having swam a long time, he became exhausted, 
and give up in despair. 22. The dog is laying upon the rug, while 
the old cat sets upon a chair. 



Exercise 100. 

Write original sentences containing these irregular verbs as directed : 

1. Go in the pres.-perf., ind., act., third, plural. 

(Ex.: The little birds have gone to warmer climes.) 

2. Do in the past, ind., act., first, sing. 

3. Seek in the past-perf., ind., act., third, sing. 

4. Bring in the pres., ind., pass., third, plural 

5. Find in the perf. part., act. 

6. Sing in the pres., ind., act., first, sing. 

7. Keep in the pres.-perf., ind., act., third, plural. 

8. Lay in the past-perf., ind., pass., third, sing. 

9. Make in the past, ind., act., first, plural. 

10. Lie in the pres.-perf., in fin., act. 

11. Give in the pres.-perf., ind., pass., third, plural. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 169 

LESSON XLVL 
DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

What do you observe of the irregular verbs in Class IV.? 

That some of the parts are wanting. 

What does defective mean? 

Deficient, or wanting in some of the parts. 

What do you call such verbs, and why? 

Defective verbs, because they are deficient in some of 
their parts. 

In what parts are they defective? 

In all except the present and past tenses. 

What can you say of will, shall, may, can, and must? 

These verbs, together with do, have, and be, have been 
called auxiliary verbs, because they are used to help form 
the tenses, forms, and passive voice of other verbs. 

What parts of do are so used? 

Only the present and past tenses; do, dost, does (doth), 
did, didst. 

What does do express? 

Do expresses emphasis or force; as, "I do believe it." 

How is do best parsed? 

As a verb of itself, the verb which follows being in the 
infinitive mood. 

What are the variations of have? 

Save, hast, has (hath), had, hadst 

Before what form of the verb are the variations of have 
always used? 

Before the perfect participle. 
What do they imply? 

They imply that the completeness denoted by the parti- 
ciple exists at the time expressed by the verb; thus, "I 



170 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

have eaten" shows the completion of the act of eating 
at the present time; "I had eaten" shows the completion 
of the act at some past time. 

"What are the variations of be? 

Am, art, are, be, been, being, is, was, wast, were. 

Before what forms of the verb are these variations used? 

Before either the imperfect participle, as "He is eating," 
or the perfect participle, as "The food was eaten." 

"What do they imply? 

With the imperfect participle in either voice they imply 
that the incompleteness denoted by the participle exists 
at the time which they themselves express; as, "He is 
writing," "The houses are building"* 

With the perfect participle they imply that the complete- 
ness denoted by the participle exists at the time expressed 
by themselves; as, "The letter is written," "The houses 
were built last year." 

What are the variations of will and shall? 

Will, wilt, would, wouldst; shall, shalt, should, shouldst. 

"What does will express? 

Will in the first person expresses the will or determination 
of its subject; as, "I will rule." In the other persons it 
simply foretells ; as, "He will come to-morrow." 

What does shall express? 

Shall in the first person simply foretells; as, "I shall 
see him." In the other persons it expresses the will or 
determination of another not the subject in respect to the 
act of the verb; as, "He shall pay the debt." 

What are the variations of may, can, and must? 

May, mayst, might, mightst; can, canst, could, couldst; must 
has no variations. 

*See note on page 176. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 

What do may, can, and must imply? 

May implies permission, as "You may (are permitted) 
to go;" can implies ability, as "He can (is able to) walk;" 
must implies necessity, as "He must (is obliged to) work." 

What can you say of the time denoted by shall and will, 
should and would? 

As shall and will, though present forms, may refer to 
future time, so their past forms, should and would, may 
refer to present time; thus, "If they were here, I slwuld 
see them;" "If I had the money, I would pay you." 

How are all these so-called auxiliaries best parsed? 

As verbs of themselves, and the forms following them 
either as infinitives or participles. 

"I will go;" here will is a verb agreeing with I, and 
go a verb in the infinitive mood. 

"He has written;" here has is a verb of itself agreeing 
with he, and written a participle perfect active referring 
to he. 

"They were ruled;" here were is a verb agreeing with 
they, and ruled a participle perfect passive referring to they. 

What can you say of the other defective verbs? 

Beware has only the imperative and present infinitive ; 
as, "Beware of flattery;" "I warn you to beware" Quoth 
is nearly obsolete ; it is sometimes used in the first and third 
persons of the present and past indicative; as, "Quoth I, 
quoth he." Wit has only the present infinitive; "To wit" 

What are impersonal or unipersonal verbs? 

Those which are used only in the third person singular 
with it for a subject; as, it rains, it snows, etc. 

What does the pronoun it represent here? 

It represents some indefinite subject not easily supplied. 

What can you say of methinks, methought? 

They are anomalous forms for I think, I thought 



172 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 

"What forms of expression are sometimes given as the forms 
of the verb? 

The common form; as, "He writes" 

The progressive form, which denotes continuance of the 
action; as, "He is writing" 

The negative form, which denies the act; as, "He writes 
not;" "He has not written" 

The interrogative form, which asks a question; as, (( Does 
he ivritef" 

The interrogative -negative form, which asks a question 
negatively; as, (( Does he not write f" 

The emphatic form, w T hich expresses emphasis or force; 
as, "I do write;" "He did write" 

The ancient form, which takes th or e^ instead of s in 
the third person singular of the present indicative; as, 
"He ivriteth;" "He spealceth." 

What can you say of these forms? 

The ancient is the only real form distinct from the 
common form. In the others the words are best parsed 
separately. 

Exercise 101. 

Correct the errors in the use of will and shall, would and should: 
1. I will receive a letter to-day, I think. 2. Walk in, ladies. 
Shall you take seats? 3. Will I help you to some fruit, miss, or 
shall you help yourself? 4. Shall you look at some goods, ladies? 
What will I show you? 5. I promised that I should not forsake 
you, and I shall not. 6. Oh! I will be drowned, and nobody shall 
help me ! 7. I think that he shall pay you. 8. Do you think we 
will reach home before dark? 9. He is determined that he shall 
succeed. 10. He is determined that the affair will succeed. 11. He 
was determined that he should succeed. 12. He was determined 
that the affair would succeed. 13. I think I will be elected. 
14. If I would be elected, I promise that I shall do my duty. 



PARTICIPLES. 




PARTICIPLES. 

1. Ha! what sort of a creature have we here in this 
picture ! It is a dancing bear, and the boys are having a 
grand frolic with him. .Is it not funny to see a bear 
dancing with children? 

2. Here the word dancing as first used describes the 
bear, and hence has the nature of an adjective. The 
second dancing shows what the bear does, and therefore 
partakes of the nature of a verb. 

3. These words which participate in the properties of 
the verb and adjective are called Participles. 



LESSON XLVII 
PARTICIPLES. 



When I say, I saw a dancing bear, what does the word 
dancing resemble, and why? 

An adjective, because it is joined to the noun 
bear to describe it; thus, a dancing bear. 



174 PARTICIPLES. 

I saw a bear: dancing with the boys. What does dancing 
resemble here, and why? 

It resembles a verb, since it expresses an action. 

What does participle mean? 

Sharing or participating. 

Since the word dancing participates in the properties 
of a verb and an adjective, what may it be called? 

A participle. 

From what verb is dancing derived? 

From the verb dance. 

What then is a participle 1 

A participle is a word derived from a verb, 
and partaking of the nature of a verb and an 
adjective. 

Will you give other examples of participles? 

I heard several ladies singing together ; we met 
a man running ; I saw a fox caught in a trap. 

In the sentence, I saw a girl writing a letter, how does 
the participle writing represent the act? 

As incomplete or imperfect at that time. 

What kind of a participle then may we call writing f 

An imperfect participle, because it represents 

the act as incomplete. 

I saw a boy catching fish. What kind of a participle 
is catching 1 Why ? What then is an imperfect participle f 

An imperfect participle is one that repre- 
sents the act or state as incomplete at the time 
referred to. 



PARTICIPLES. 175 

Give other examples of imperfect participles. 

See the boys playing ball; the old man lives 

respected by all who know him. 

The girl having written her letter sealed it. How does 
the participle having written represent the act? 

As complete or perfect at the time referred to. 

What kind of a participle then may we call having 
written, and why? 

A perfect participle, because it represents the 
act as complete. 

The sun having risen, we resumed our journey. What 
is having risen f Why? What then is a perfect participle t 

A perfect participle is a participle that 
represents the act or state as complete at the 
time referred to. 

Give other examples of perfect participles. 

"Having received my money, I paid the debt;" 
"I received a letter written by my brother in 
Paris." 



How many participles have verbs? 

Two ; an imperfect participle and a perfect participle. 
Those from transitive verbs have both voices ; those from 
intransitive verbs have no passive voice. 

How may the imperfect participle active be known? 

By its always ending in ing; as, writing, coming. 

How may the perfect participle active be known? 

By the word having, either expressed or implied; as, 
having written; "The sun already (having) risen, we set sail." 



176 



PARTICIPLES. 



What do you observe of the imperfect and perfect participles 
passive? 

They both have the same form. 

How then may they be distinguished? 

When the word being occurs or can be supplied before 
the participle it is imperfect; as, "The signal being seen, 
he stops the train;" "We met a blind man (being) led by 
a dog." 

When the words having 
been occur or can be sup- 
plied before the participle 
it is perfect; as, "I dug up 
an old coin (having been) 
stamped by Csesar nearly 
two thousand years ago;" 
"The army, having been 
defeated in many battles, 
at last surrendered." 

Write a sentence about the picture containing the imperfect 
participle active of run. One containing the perfect participle 
active of catch. One containing the imperfect participle passive 
of steal. One containing the perfect participle passive of eat. 




Note.— On account of the want of an imperfect participle passive dif- 
ferent in form from the perfect passive we are forced to use the imperfect 
active in a passive sense, as " Many houses are building," or else adopt the 
awkward forms " are being built," " have been being built," etc. 

Such forms as "Many houses are building" "Wheat is selling at two 
dollars," "A bridge was constructing" " New methods of treatment are con- 
stantly inventing" "Is there any thing doing in dry goods?" are used by 
the best writers, and seem to be well established. This arises from the 
fact that our imperfect participle passive can not be distinguished by its 
form from the perfect, and hence the incompleteness which we wish to 
express can not be denoted with certainty by the passive form. 

When the imperfect nature of the participle is shown by other words 
the difficulty vanishes ; thus, " This house is built entirely of stone." We 
say this of a house completed no matter how long ago, and built is plainly 
a perfect participle passive. We should hardly use this expression of a 
house not yet completed, because we could not assert that it would be 
" entirely of stone." 



PARTICIPLES. 177 

When we say, " This house is built very slowly," or " This house is built 
by Jones and Smith," here built is an imperfect participle passive. Of a 
house already completed we should never use these last expressions, but 
should throw them at once into the past tense. To guide the pupil in the 
use of these forms we give the following directions : 

1. When continuance of the action is to be specially marked and is not 
indicated by other words the active form may be used. When the incom- 
pleteness is sufficiently indicated by other words the passive form should be 
used ; thus, " The vessel is now repairing in the dry-dock. It is repaired 
(not repairing) by Jones and Mason in the most substantial manner." 
" Here is the place where the corn is grinding. It is ground (not grinding) 
fine by the heavy mill-stone." 

2. When the subject and the action denoted by the participle are of 
such a kind that the former might be mistaken a Jthe agent of the act the 
passive form must be used ; thus, " The court is now in session, and the 
criminals are tried (not trying) for their lives." 

Exercise 102. 

Name the participles, and tell what kind they are, as in the example : 
1. Jesus, seeing the multitude, went up into a mountain (Ex.: 
seeing, a participle, imperf., active, from the verb see). 2. The sun 
having risen, we departed. 3. The witness, having been sworn, 
proceeded to give his testimony. 4. Having eaten nothing for 
the day, I was very hungry. 5. A storm coming on, we repaired 
to a hut for shelter. 6. I saw a herd of buffaloes grazing upon 
the prairie. 7. The traveler plodded on, drenched by the rain and 
bewildered by the darkness. 8. Repulsing and repulsed in turn, 
the armies continue to fight. 9. A horse, escaped from its rider, 
dashed furiously by us. 10. What could they do, their leader 
being lost? 

Exercise 103. 

Write four original sentences with each verb, containing their several 
participles, as in the example : 

1. Eat. 3. Take. 5. Write. 7. Strike. 

2. Love. 4. Teach. 6. Break. 8. Find. 

Example : 

Imperf. part., act, I saw the workmen eating their dinners under a tree. 
Perf. part, act, Having eaten their dinners, they resumed their labor. 
Imperf. part, pass., The crops, eaten by the cattle, were fast disappearing. 
Perf. part, pass., Their dinners having been eaten, their baskets were empty. 



12 



178 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 



LESSON XL VIII. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 



What is an adverb? When I say, The lame man walks slowly, 
what is slowly? 

Slowly is an adverb, because it is joined to the verb 
walks to modify it. 

What does slowly express in this sentence? 

It expresses the manner of walking. 

What then may such adverbs be called? 

Adverbs of manner. 

How may an adverb of manner be known? 

By its answering the question howl or in what manner f 
thus, "How does the lame man walk?" Answer, "Slowly" 

The wind blows gently. What kind of an adverb is gently? 
Why? Give other examples of adverbs of manner. 

Softly, sweetly, well, furiously, nobly, finely. 

When I say, The man walks now; he walks frequently ; what 
do the adverbs now and frequently ex- »_ vV 

press? 

They express time. 

What then may we call such ad- 
verbs as these? 

Adverbs of time. 

How may an adverb of time be 
known? 

By its answering some question 
of time, as whenf thus, "When does the man walk?" An- 
swer, "Now" 

He formerly lived in London. What kind of an adverb is 
formerly? Why? Give other examples of adverbs of time. 

Soon, recently, ever, always, often, rarely. 

Write two sentences about the picture containing adverbs of 
manner. Two containing adverbs of time. 




■Ts^^zl 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 179 

When I say, The man walks here; he walks yonder ; what do 
the adverbs here and yonder express? 

They express the place of walking* 

What kind of adverbs then may they be called? 

Adverbs of place. 

How may an adverb of place be known? 

By its answering some question of place, as where? 
whence ? whither f thus, "Where does the man walk?" 
Answer, "Here" 

The bird flew away. What kind of an adverb is away? 
Why? Give other examples of adverbs of place. 

There, where, whence, forth, within, upward. 

The apple is very good; it is quite ripe. What do the adverbs 
very and quite express here? 

They express the degree in which the apple is good. 

What then may they be called? 

Adverbs of degree. 

How may an adverb of degree be known? 

By its answering the question, how much? or to what 
extent? thus, " To what extent is the apple ripe?" Answer, 
"Quite ripe." 

What other classes of ad- ^^^^^^M^^^^^k^^Z 
verbs can you mention? -#w*£U-~i5P=, 

Adverbs of cause — why, therefore, consequently, etc. 
Adverbs of affirmation — truly, indeed, surely, etc. 



180 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 




*x±yv?m& 



Adverbs of doubt — perhaps, perchance, probably, etc. 

Negative adverbs — not, nay, no, etc. 

Conjunctive adverbs — when, as, where, while; when used 
to connect clauses, as "We play in the house when it rains." 

Expletive adverbs — there, well, why; when they merely 
serve to introduce a sentence, 
as "WeU, I will think of the 
matter." 

When I say, J will start at 
once, to what is the phrase at once 
equivalent? 

It is equivalent to the ad- 
verb immediately; thus, "I will 
start immediately." 

Since at once is a phrase equivalent to an adverb, what may 
it be called? 

An adverbial phrase. 

Give other examples of adverbial phrases. 

In vain, in short, not at all, in no wise, by and by. 

Write a sentence about the picture containing an adverb of 
manner? One containing an adverb of time. One containing 
an adverb of place. One containing an adverb of degree. One 
containing an adverbial phrase. 

Exercise 104. 

Name the adverbs and tell to which class each belongs: 
1. The young lady dances gracefully. 2. She frequently visits 
her cousin, whom she loves dearly. 3. A large ship lies yonder 
at anchor. 4. I saw your sister there, but I could not find you 
any where. 5. The storm raged violently for a time, but it soon 
subsided. 6. Did you find your friend very sick? No; he was 
slightly unwell. 7. "When are you going to start? I shall start 
immediately. 8. Do you ever go to the theater? Yes; I go 
occasionally, but not often. 9. In some countries it seldom rains. 
10. The little girl was not at all pleased with her present. 11. His 
friends looked for him long and anxiously, but he never returned. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 181 

Exercise 105. 

Put an adverb of manner in 1, of time in 2, of place in 3, of degree in 4 : 
1. Birds fly . .1. ., but snails creep . .1. . (Birds fly swiftly, but 
snails creep slowly). 2. . .2. . are you coming to visit us? 3. Are 
you going to school . .2. .? 4. . .3. . is your father? . .3. . he 
stands. 5. It rained . . 1. . last night, and the streets are . .4. . 
muddy . .2. . 6. I have . .2. . come from home. 7. . .3. . do you 
come, and . .3. . are you going? 8. . . 1. . is your friend . .2. .? 
He is . . 4 . . better than he was . . 2 . . 9. The bells chimed . . 1 . . 
upon her wedding-day. 10. I have . . 2 . . bought a new coat, and 
it fits me . . 1 . . 

Exercise 106. 

Write sentences containing adverbs of the several classes, as directed : 

1. Adverb of manner. Ex.: The violet blooms modestly by the brookside. 

2. Adverb of time. 5. Adverb of cause. 8. Negative adverb. 

3. Adverb of place. 6. Adverb of affirmation. 9. Expletive adverb. 

4. Adverb of degree. 7. Adverb of doubt. 10. Adverbial phrase. 

LESSON XLIX. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

When I say, I go often, but you go oftener, what do the adverbs 
often and oftener express? 

They express the relation of time in different degrees. 

"What property then have adverbs in common with adjectives? 

Many of them have comparison. 

How are adverbs compared? 

1. In a regular manner, by adding er and est; as, pos. 
soon, comp. sooner, sup. soonest. 

2. In an irregular manner; as, well, better, best; badly, 
or ill, worse, worst; much, more, most; little, less, least; far, 
farther, farthest. 

How is comparison expressed when the adverb is not varied? 
By prefixing more and most, less and least; as, gently, 
more gently, most gently; less gently, least gently. 



182 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

She speaks gently. What words may I use instead of gently 
to express the same meaning? 

An adjunct; thus, "She speaks in a gentle manner" 

What is an adjunct? 

An adjunct is a phrase consisting of a preposition with 
its object and the modifiers of the object. 

To what is an adverb often equivalent? 

To an adjunct; thus, rapidly equals in a rapid manner; 
here equals in this place; now equals at this time; very equals 
in a great degree. 

How are many adverbs formed? 

By adding the termination ly to adjectives; thus, sweet, 
sweetly; firm, firmly; soft, softly; brief, briefly. 

LESSON L. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

What is a pronoun ? When I say, I have my booh with 
me, what noun do the pronouns I, my, and me represent? 

The name of the person speaking. 

Of what person then would you call them? 

Of the first person, the same as the noun 
which they represent. 

Of what person are thou and yout 

Thou and you are always of the second person, 
because they denote the person spoken to. 

Of what person are he, she, and it? 

He, she, and it are always of the third person, 

because they denote objects spoken of. 

Since these pronouns thus indicate the three grammat- 
ical persons, what may they be called ? 

Personal pronouns. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 183 

What then are personal pronouns f 

Personal pronouns are those which are 

always of the same person. 

Which are the personal pronouns, and of what person 
are they respectively? 

I and its cases of the first person; thou, you, 

and their cases of the second person; he, she, it, 

and their cases of the third person. 



Since pronouns stand for nouns, what properties have they? 

The same as the nouns which they represent; namely, 
gender, person, number, and case. 

Name the personal pronouns of each gender. 

He and its cases, masculine; she and its cases, feminine; 
it and its cases, neuter; I, thou, you, and their cases, 
common. 

In the sentence, He has his dog with him, in what case are the 
pronouns, respectively? 

He is in the nominative case, his in the possessive, and 
him in the objective. Hence the pronoun like the noun 
has declension. 

Declension of the Personal Phonouns. 

THIRD PERSON MASCULINE. THIRD PERSON FEMININE. 



SINGULAR, 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nom., he, 


they, 


Nom., she, 


they, 


Pass., his, 


their, theirs, 


Poss., her, hers, 


their, theirs, 


Obj., him ; 


them. 


Obj., her; 


them. 


THIRD PERSON NEUTER. 


FIRST PERSON 


COMMON. 


SINGULAR, 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nom., it, 


they, 


Nom., I, • 


we, 


Poss., its, 


their, theirs. 


Poss., my, mine, 


our, ours, 


Obj., it; 


them. 


Obj., me; 


us. 



184 PERSONAL, PRONOUNS. 

SECOND PERSON COMMON. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom., thou, Nom., you (ye), 

Poss., thy, thine, Poss., your, yours, 

Obj., thee; Obj. } you. 

How do the two forms of the possessive of all the personal 
pronouns except he and it differ in use? 

The first form is used when the noun is expressed; the 
second when the noun is omitted; thus, "This is your book, 
and that is mine (my book);" "My book and yours (your 
book) are on the desk." 

What can you say of mine and thine? 

Mine and thine were formerly used before words begin- 
ning with a vowel, instead of my and thy, and are still so 
used in solemn style; as, "Blot out all mine iniquities." 

What can you say of the use of thou? 

Thou is used in the Scriptures, and often in poetry and 
other solemn and Earnest compositions. 

What do we..co™uonly use instead of thou? 

The second person plural you;* thus we say, "You 
love," whether speaking to one person or more than one. 

How are we and our sometimes used? 

We and our are sometimes used by authors and editors 
to represent a single person ; as, " We said in our yester- 
day's paper," etc. 

Exercise 107. 

Tell the gender, person, number, and case of the pronouns, and name 
the nouns which they represent: 

1. John and his sister came to the city yesterday (Ex.: his y 

pers. pro., mas., third, sing., poss., representing John). 2. Mary 

* Some authors consider you our singular pronoun of the second person 
instead of thou, and so arrange it in their declensions and conjugations. 
We think this is wrong. You is really our second person plural, but we 
use it and the plural verb also in addressing a single person ; and there 
seems no more propriety in calling you a singular pronoun than in calling 
are (or any other plural verb used with you) a singular verb. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 185 

is a good scholar; she always has her lessons. 3. Carrie and her 
cousin came to visit me; they brought all their toys with them. 
4. We are going to your house; our dog is with us. 5. Ask thy 
Father in heaven to assist thee. 6. The bird hides its nest in the 
grass that naughty boys may not find it. 7. James says he has a 
little pony which his uncle gave him. 8. Where are you going, 
boys? May we go with you? 9. Thou art my beloved Son; this 
day have I begotten thee. 

Exercise 108. 

1. Write eight sentences containing different pronouns of the 
first person. 2. Eight containing different pronouns of the second 
person. 3. Seven containing different pronouns of the third per- 
son masculine. 4. Seven containing different pronouns of the third 
person feminine. 5. Six containing different pronouns of the third 
person neuter. 

LESSON LI. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

When I say, John will go himself, whajfeis himself? 
Himself is a pronoun, it stands for j&e noun John; per- 
sonal because it is always of the same "person, the third. 

Since it is composed of the simple pronoun him and the word 
self, what may it be called? 

A compound personal pronoun. 

What then is a compound personal pronoun? 

A compound personal pronoun is one composed 
of a simple personal pronoun and the word self or selves 
joined to it. 

To which cases of the simple pronoun is self or selves added? 

To the possessive of those of the first and second persons ; 
as, myself ourselves; thyself yourselves. To the objective of 
those of the third person ; as, himself itself; herself, themselves. 

What cases have compound personal pronouns? 

Only the nominative and objective cases; and these 
cases are alike. 



186 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



Declension of the Compound Personal Pronouns. 



NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE. 

1st Per., myself (ourself); ^ r 1st Per., ourselves; 
2d Per., thyself (yourself); | -J 2d Per., yourselves; 

2>d Per., himself, herself, itself. ^ 1 3d Per., themselves. 



What can you say of ourself? 

Ourself is sometimes used for myself, as we is used for I 
in official writings, etc.; as, "We do ourself ordain," etc. 

How is yourself used? 

Yourself is used for thyself just as you is used for thou; 
as, "You may go yourself" 

Exercise 109. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences: 

1. James did it hisself. 2. They flatter theirselves. 3. I fell 
down and hurt meself. 4. The snake bit itsself. 5. Thou lovest 
theeself too well. 7. Write nine original sentences, containing 
different compound personal pronouns. 

LESSON LIL 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

In the sentence, / saiv the man who bought your horse, what 
is who? 

Who is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun. 
To what does who relate in this sentence? 
Who relates to the noun man, which precedes it. 
"What kind of a pronoun then may who be called, and why? 
Who is a relative pronoun, because it relates to a pre- 
ceding noun. 

What does antecedent mean? 

Antecedent means going before, or preceding. 

What is the noun called to which the relative pronoun relates? 

The antecedent of the relative. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 187 

Will you now define a relative pronoun? 
A relative pronoun is one which relates to a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun, called its antecedent 

I hear the lady who sings. What is who? Why? What is 
its antecedent? 

Here is the coat which you bought. What is which? 

Which is a relative pronoun, and relates to the noun 
coat as its antecedent. 

This is the dog that bit the cat. What is that? To what noun 
does it relate? 

He took what he wanted. What is what? 

What is a relative pronoun ; it relates to some indefinite 
antecedent, as thing or things, which is omitted ; thus, ' ' He 
took the thing which (or what) he wanted." 

Which are the relative pronouns? 

Who, which, that, and what. 

Declension of the Relative Pronouns. 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


JVora., who, 


who, 


JYbm., 


which, 


which, 


Poss., wJiose, 


whose. 


Poss.j 


whose, 


whose, 


Obj., whom ; 


whom. 


Obj., 


which ; 


which. 



What do you observe of who and which? 

They have the same form in both numbers. 

What can you say of that and what? 

That and what are used only in the nominative and 
objective cases. They are alike in both cases, and in both 
numbers. 

You have learned that that is sometimes a definitive adjective, 
sometimes a conjunction, and sometimes a relative pronoun; how 
may you know when it is a relative? 

That is a relative pronoun when either who, whom, or 
which may be substituted for it; as in the sentences, "The 
boy that (orivho) studies will learn;" "He is the very man 



188 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

that (or whom) we met;" "She has every thing that (or 
which) she wants." 

How is what used? 

What is used to represent some indefinite antecedent, as 
thing or things, and is used only when the antecedent is 
omitted; thus, "Take what {any thing that) you want." 

If the antecedent is expressed, what relative is used instead 
of what? 

Either which or that; thus in the sentence, "He keeps 
what he finds," if we supply the antecedent, we say, "He 
keeps the thing which (or that) he finds." 

Exercise 110. 

Name the relative pronouns and their antecedents: 
1. This is the dog that bit the cat. 2. I saw the tree which 
had been struck by lightning. 3. The boy who fell into the river 
was saved by a boat that was passing. 4. That is the man whose 
house was burnt. 5. Have you sold the goods which you bought? 
6. I took what he gave me. 7. The man whom we saw to-day is 
the same one that met us yesterday. 8. It was the darkest night 
that I ever saw. 9. God, who created all things, whose we are, 
and whom we serve, is eternal. 

Exercise 111. 

Tell what each that is in the following sentences: 

1. The girl that studies will learn. 2. I did not know that he 
had come. 3. Bless them that persecute you. 4. I heard that 
you had been sick. 5. The man that owns that house says that 
he will sell it. 6. She that is virtuous will be loved. 7. It was a 
violent wind that blew down that tree. 8. I have sold the horse 
that you sent me. 

Exercise 112. 

Write original sentences, using the following relatives: 

1. Which. Example: { Listen not to flatter ? 5 U is the buzz 

I of the insect which would bite you. 

2. Who. 3. That. 4. Whom. 5. Whose. 6. Whrt. 



COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 189 

LESSON LIIL 
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Whoever sins will suffer. What does whoever mean here? 
Whoever means any person who. 
What is whoever in this sentence? 

It is a relative pronoun, relating to some general or 
indefinite antecedent, which is omitted. 

Since whoever is composed of the relative pronoun who and 
the word ever, what may it be called? 

A compound relative pronoun. 

What then is a compound relative pronoun? 

A compound relative pronoun is a simple relative 
pronoun with the word ever or soever annexed to it? 

Which are they? 

Whoever, whosoever; whichever, whichsoever; whatever, 
whatsoever. 

How are the compound relative pronouns declined? 

They are declined like the corresponding relatives; 
thus, nom. whoever, pos. whosever, obj. whomever. 

How are the compound relative pronouns used? 

They are used only when the antecedent is omitted, on 
account of its being indefinite. 

Does the pronoun include the antecedent? 

It does not; the antecedent is omitted, and may be 
easily supplied if we give the ever its proper meaning; 
thus, "I love whoever (the person who at any time or ever) 
loves me."* 

*" I love whoever loves me" and " I love him who loves me " do not 
always convey the same idea. The former is very general and indefinite; 
the latter may he very definite. Suppose a young lady in reply to a gentle- 
man should say. "I love him who loves me," or "I love whoever loves 
me;" which answer, under certain relations of the parties, would be most 
agreeable? 



190 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

LESSON LIV. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

When I say, Who has been here to-day? what does who indicate? 
It indicates that a question is asked. 
What part of speech is it? 

It is evidently a pronoun, because it represents some 
person, although the person's name may not be known. 
What does interrogative mean? 
Interrogative means asking a question. 

Since who in this sentence is a pronoun which asks a question, 
what may it be called? 

An interrogative pronoun. 
What then is an interrogative pronoun? 
An interrogative pronoun is one which is used to 
ash a question; as, "Who is coming?" 

Whom have you seen to-day ? What is whom ? Why ? Which 
are the interrogative pronouns? 

Who, which, and what. 

How are the interrogative pronouns declined? 

Who is declined in the same manner as the relative who. 
Which and what are not declined; but whose is used for 
the possessive of which. 

What are the pronouns who, which, and what often called in 
responsive clauses? 

They are often called indefinite pronouns; as, "I know 
who is here;" "I can not tell what it is." 

What further use have what and which? 

What, which, and their compounds, whatever, whatsoever, 
whichever, whichsoever, when joined to nouns, are definitive 
adjectives; as, "By what road are you going?" "Which train 
will you take?" "By whatever road you go and whichever 
train you take, you will arrive too late." 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 191 



Exercise 113. 

Distinguish the relatives, the interrogatives, the indefinites, and the 
definitive adjectives: 

1. Let me see the book which you have bought. 2. In what 
house do you live? 3. Whom did you see at the theater? 4. I 
can not tell you whose it is. 5. Whatever might be the reason, 
he would not come. 6. Whose is that elegant house which stands 
on the hill? 7. Which has arrived, the major or the captain? 
8. I do not know which has arrived. 9. Tell me by which route 
you are going. 10. He takes what is given to him. 11. I will 
invite whomsoever I please. 12. Who was there? I know who 
was there. I saw the man who was there. 13. This man favors 
whoever favors him. 14. I mean to buy whatever pleases me. 
15. That is an elegant house, whoever owns it. 16. What is your 
name? 17. What a great change has taken place! 

Exercise 114. 

Write original sentences containing the following: 

Whoever as a compound relative. Ex.: Whoever had a ticket was admitted. 

Whichever as a compound relative. What as an interrogative pronoun. 

Whatever as a compound relative. What as a definitive adjective. 

Who as an interrogative. JVhich as a definitive adjective. 

Which as an interrogative. Whatever as a definitive adjective. 



LESSON LV. 
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

One day the man was missing. What is one here? 

One is an adjective definitive, belonging to day. 

One does not often see such a sight. How is one used here? 

It represents some indefinite noun, as person, and hence 
may be called a pronoun; thus, "One (a person) does not 
often see such a sight." 

Since then one is sometimes an adjective and sometimes a pro- 
noun, what may it he called? 

An adjective pronoun. 



192 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

What are adjective pronouns? 

Adjective pronouns are those definitive adjectives 
which are sometimes used as pronouns. 

Which are they, and how are they declined? 

They are one, none, other, another. One and other are 
declined as follows: 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nom., one, 


ones, 


Nom., other, 


others, 


Poss., one's, 


ones', 


Poss., other's, 


others', 


Obj. , one ; 


ones. 


Obj. , other ; 


others. 



Another is declined like other, except that it has no 
plural. None is not declined. 

What can you say of none? 

None means no one (or not any when it refers to quantity), 
and is therefore singular. It is used only when its noun 
is omitted. If the noun is expressed, no is used; thus, "I 
have no money. I have none." 

What other peculiarity has none? 

None never takes an adjective before it; thus we never 
say, "I have good none;" but we divide the none and say, 
"I have no good one." 

What can you say of another? 

Another means an other, or one other, and is used only 
in the singular. 

Explain the use of each other in the sentence, " The sisters love 
each other y 

Each is a definitive adjective, belonging to sisters taken 
distributively, and other is an adjective pronoun in the 
objective case, the object of the verb love." 

The boys all help one another. Explain one another here. 

One is a definitive adjective, belonging to boys taken 
distributively, and another is an adjective pronoun in the 
objective case, the object of the verb help. 



ADJECTIVE PKONOUNS. 193 

When should these and other definitive adjectives be considered 
as pronouns? 

Only when their nouns can not be well supplied, or 
when the adjectives themselves assume the property of 
number or case.* 

Exercise 115. 

Tell to what class each pronoun belongs, and what noun it represents : 
1. My cousin is coming to see me, if her mother will let her. 
2. Your father has sold the house which he built. 3. Charles cut 
himself with his brother's knife. 4. Bless them that curse you. 
5. We should love our neighbors as well as ourselves. 6. Those 
who are industrious will succeed. 7. The rose which you gave me 
has lost its fragrance. 8. Who does no good, does harm. 9. He 
invites whom he pleases. 10. The girl loves whoever loves her. 
11. He took what he could find. 12. There was no one present. 
13. The brother and sister love each other dearly. 14. We should 
always respect the rights of others. 15. The scholars are very 
kind to one another. 16. Whoever crosses this bridge must pay 
the toll. 17. I know who you are and what you want. 18. Big 
boys must not tease the little ones. 19. This girl has taken the 
other's books. 20. This is the finest church that I ever saw. 

Exercise 116. 

Write original sentences containing: 

1. One as a definitive adjective. 4. Other as an adjective pronoun. 

2. One as an adjective pronoun. 5. Another as a definitive adjective. 

3. Other as a definitive adjective. 6. Another as an adjective pronoun. 

* These words are "by some parsed as pronouns whenever they are un- 
accompanied by their nouns. This is objectionable, since upon the same 
principle all the definitive adjectives and all the descriptive adjectives, in 
all their degrees of comparison, must be called pronouns when they are 
not accompanied by their nouns; thus, "How many apples have you?" 
" I have one; I have two; I have six" There appears no better reason for 
calling one a pronoun in this example than for calling two and six pronouns 
also. So " Which lesson have you V ' " We have the fifth and the tenth: ' We 
have the same reason for calling fifth and tenth pronouns. Also, " Which 
apple have you, the sweet or the sour f " "I have the best ; I have the largest: ' 
Sweet, sour, best, and largest have an equal right to be classed among pro- 
nouns. For this and for other reasons we have limited the adjective pro- 
r.ouns as above to one and other, and their compounds, none and another. 

13 



194 KELATIONS OF PREPOSITIONS. 

LESSON LVL 
RELATIONS OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The dog lies under the table. What is under here? 
Under is a preposition; it shows the relation between 
lies and table. 

What are the principal relations which prepositions show 
between words? 

Relations of place where, place ivhence, place whither; 
direction or tendency, cause, manner, means, purpose, time. 
Will you illustrate these relations by examples? 
Place where, . . . The house stands upon the hill. 
Place wlience, . . The rain falls from the clouds. 
Place whither, . . The boy ran into the garden. 
Direction, .... They fled toward the fort. 
Cause, . 
Manner, 
Means, , 
Purpose, 
Time, . , 



. . The army suffered from famine. 
. . The wind blew with violence. 
. . He acquired wealth by his industry. 
, . They searched the desert for water. 
. . He rose before day. 
The stream flows from under the ice. How is from under used? 
From under is used as one preposition; it shows the 
relation between flows and ice, and may be called a com- 
pound preposition. 

What then is a compound preposition? 
A compound preposition is composed of two words 
used as one preposition. 
Give other examples. 

"I am satisfied as to his ability;" "The fort stands over 
against the arsenal." 

When a preposition has no object what may it be called? 
An adverb, or sometimes a noun; thus, adverb, "The 
captain went below; 9 ' noun, "It came from above." 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 195 

Exercise 117. 

Name the prepositions and the relations they show. Tell which are 
used as adverbs, which as nouns, and which are compound: 

1. The men returned after sunset to their homes. 2. These 

emigrants came from beyond the ocean. 3. The boy knocked the 

lamp off the table, and then ran off. 4. He is not able to go out 

of his room because of sickness. 5. The house has fallen down. 

6. The swine ran down a steep place into the sea. 7. All our 

blessings come from above. 8. As for me, I am ready to go. 

Exercise 118. 

Write sentences, using prepositions expressing relations as directed : 

1. Place where. Example: The horse is in the stable. 

2. Place whence. 4. Cause. 6. Manner. 8. Purpose. 

3. Place whither. 5. Time. 7. Means. 9. Direction. 

LESSON LVII. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

When I say, The wind blows and the rain falls, what 
part of speech is and, and why? 

And is a conjunction, because it connects the 

groups of words the wind blows and the rain falls. 

Are these groups of equal or unequal rank in the 
sentence ? 

They are of equal rank) since neither of them 

depends upon or modifies the other. 

What does co-ordinate mean? 

Co-ordinate means of equal rank. 

Since and connects words or groups of equal rank, what 
kind of a conjunction may we call it? 

A co-ordinate conjunction. 

Alice studies, but Minnie is idle. What is bull Why? 



196 CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Will you now define a co-ordinate conjunction! 

A co-ordinate conjunction is one which 
connects words or groups of words of equal rank. 

Name the principal co-ordinate conjunctions. 

And, or, but, also, besides, furthermore. 

You may stay if it rains. What does if connect here? 

If connects the groups of words you may stay 
and it rains. 

Are these groups of equal or unequal rank? 
Of unequal rank, since the clause if it rains 
depends on the principal clause you may stay, and 
attends it merely as a modifier. 
What does subordinate mean? 
Subordinate means of lower rank. 
What kind of a conjunction then may we call if! 
A subordinate conjunction. 

He is generous, although he is poor. What is although! 
vvny/ Uenne a subordinate conjunction. 

A subordinate conjunction is one which 
connects words or groups of words of unequal 
rank, one of which modifies the other. 

Which are the principal subordinate conjunctions? 
If, unless, since, because, that, for, lest, though, 
although, notwithstanding. 

m In the sentence, She will either sing or dance, what is 
either, and how is it used? 

Hither is a conjunction, and is used to refer to 
or, which follows. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 197 

What does corresponding mean? 

Referring to, or answering to. 

What kind of a conjunction then may either be called? 

Either is a corresponding conjunction, because it 

refers to or. 

He is both wise and brave. What is bothf Why? 
Will you define a corresponding conjunction t 

A corresponding conjunction is one which 
refers to another conjunction following it. 

Name the principal corresponding conjunctions. 

Either corresponding to or; neither to nor; both 
to and; though to yet ; whether to or. 



In the sentence, They spend money as if they were rich, how 
may as if be regarded? 

As if connects the two groups of words like a single 
conjunction, and may be called a compound conjunction. 

What is a compound conjunction? 

A compound conjunction is composed of two or more 
words used together as one conjunction. 

Will you give other examples? 

"He looks honest, and yet he is very mischievous ;" 
"John as well as James must be punished." 

Exercise 119. 

Name the conjunctions, and tell to which class each belongs: 
1. Our pupils study grammar and arithmetic. 2. He is not 
rich, but he is generous. 3. If you desire it, I will come. 4. He 
ran until he was tired. 5. Though it rained violently, yet many 
people were present. 6. He goes to town in the morning and 
returns in the evening. 7. The man lived in elegance while his 
money lasted. 8. He is not a great statesman, nor is he a true 



198 INTERJECTIONS. 

patriot. 9. Since the lady was both rich and handsome, she had 
many admirers. 

Exercise 120. 

Supply a co-ordinate conjunction in 1, a subordinate in 2, and a 
corresponding in 3: 

1. The brother . . 1 . . sister love each other (The brother and 

sister love each other). 2. I shall expect you . .2. . it rains. 3. I 

can not tell . . 3 . . it will rain . . 3 . . snow. 4. James . . 1 . . his 

brother comes to see us every day. 5. She knows . .2. . she is 

beautiful. 6. . .3. . the lady is rich . .1. . handsome, . .3. . she is 

not proud. 7. Washington is honored . . 2 . . he was great . . 1 . . 

good. 8. I remained . . 2 . . the school was dismissed. 

Exercise 121. 

Write original sentences as directed: 

1. Two containing co-ordinate conjunctions. 2. Two contain- 
ing subordinate conjunctions. 3. Two containing corresponding 
conjunctions. 4. One containing a compound conjunction. 

LESSON LVIII. 
INTERJECTIONS. 

Repeat the definition of an interjection. In the sentence, 
"Alas! my child is dead," what is alas'? Why? When I say, 
"Mercy! what can I do?" how is the word mercy used? 

Mercy, though usually a noun, is here used to express a 
sudden emotion, and hence may be called an interjection. 

What principle can you give for such cases? 

Words usually of other parts of speech, when used 
merely to express sudden emotion, may be regarded as 
interjections; as, hush I strange I goodness I 

What can you say of the case of a noun or pronoun after an 
interjection? 

Its case often depends upon some word understood ; as, 
"Ah me!" that is, "Ah (woe is to) me!" or "Ah (pity) 
me!" "Oh, happy (are) we!" 



SENTENCES. 199 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 



LESSON LIX. 

SENTENCES. 

When I say, A found boy knife the, what meaning or 
sense do I convey? 

The words express no sense. 

Why do they express no sense? 

Because they are not properly arranged. 

What does syntax mean? 

Syntax means a putting together or arranging. 

Of what does syntax in grammar treat? 

Syntax treats of the arrangement of words in 

a sentence and their relations to one another. 

How can the words a found boy knife the be so arranged 
as to make sense? 

The bog found a knife. 

Since this collection of words makes sense, what may it 
be called? 

A sentence. 

What then is a sentence? 

A sentence is a collection of words which 
makes complete sense. 

Give examples of sentences. 

Flowers bloom; the sun shines bright; has 
the mail arrived? 



200 SYNTAX. 

When I say, The boy saw, is this a sentence? 

It is not, because it does not make complete sense. Saw 
is a transitive verb, and requires an object to complete the 
sense; thus, "The boy saw the elephant." 

When I say, In the field; lying by the roadside; while it rains; 
are these collections of words sentences? 

They are not; in implies a relation between field and 
something else which must be expressed to complete the 
sense. Lying refers to something understood; and while 
implies that something else takes place while it rains. 

Join other words to these phrases so as to make sentences. 

"Men work in the field;" "I saw a horse lying by the 
roadside;" "We stay in the house while it rains." 

Exercise 122. 

Tell which of these collections of words are sentences, and which are not : 
1. The earth turns on its axis. 2. In spring when the trees 

are green and the flowers in hloom. 3. Down the steep hill. 

4. Birds fly. 5. Whistling for his dog. 6. If you are honest 

and industrious. 

See how many different sentences you can make with these eight words : 
7. Boys, the, down, see, run, hill, a, girls. 

LESSON LX. 
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

When I say, Dogs baric, what is spoken of? 

Dogs are spoken of. 

What does subject mean; as the subject of a discourse? 

The subject is that which is spoken of. 

What then is the subject in the sentence, "Dogs bark?" 

Dogs is the subject. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 201 

Will you now tell what is the subject of a sentence? 

The subject is that of which something is said. 

When I say, The girl plucked a rose, what is the subject? 

Girl is the subject, because it is that of which 

something is said. 

The wolf caught the lamb. What is the subject ? Why ? 
What is said of dogs in the sentence, "Dogs bark?" 

It is said that they bark. 

What does predicate mean? 

Predicate means to say or assert something. 

What then may we call bark in the sentence, "Dogs 
bark?" 

Bark is the predicate. 

What then is the predicate of a sentence? 

The predicate is that which is said of the 

subject. 

In the sentence, The little bird sings sweetly, what is the 
predicate ? 

Sings is the predicate, because it is that which 

is said of bird. 

The river flows into the ocean. What is the predicate? 
Why? What is the subject? Why? 



Of what two parts does the sentence "Dogs bark" consist? 
Of a subject, dogs, and a predicate, barks. 
What must every sentence contain? 

Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate, 
either expressed or understood. 



202 SYNTAX. 

What may be the subject of a sentence? 

The subject is either a noun or some word or phrase used 
as a noun; as, "The train has arrived;" "To see the sun 
is pleasant." 

What may be the predicate of a sentence? 

The predicate is always a i?er&; as, "The rain falls from 
the clouds;" "The teacher has come" 

The savage dogs of the farmer bark fiercely at the beggar. 
Which word is the subject? Why? Which the predicate? 
Why? What is called the grammatical subject? 

The grammatical subject is the subject alone without any 
of its modifiers; as dogs, in the sentence above. 

What is called the logical subject? 

The logical subject is the subject taken together with all 
its modifiers; as, "The savage dogs of the farmer." 

What is called the grammatical predicate? 

The grammatical predicate is the verb alone without any 
of its modifiers; as bark. 

What is called the logical predicate? 

The logical predicate is the verb taken together with all 
its modifiers; as, "Bark fiercely at the beggar." 

Exercise 123. 

Name the grammatical subject and predicate, also the logical subject 
and predicate, in these sentences: 

1. Stars twinkle. 2. The "bright stars twinkle in the "blue sky. 

3. Fishes swim in the sea. 4. God created the world. 5. Good 

pupils always recite promptly. 6. The best scholars in the school 

missed that question. 7. The general, mounting his horse, drove 

rapidly to the field. 

Exercise 124. 

Write with each of these predicates : 1st, a grammatical subject ; 2d, 
a logical subject: 

1 is useful for writing (1. Gram, subj.: Ink is useful 

for writing; 2. Log. subj.: White paper made of rags is useful for 

writing). 2 will soil the fingers. 3 swim in the 



TERMS IN SYNTAX. 203 

sea. 4 was lost. 5 always recite their lessons 

promptly. 6 was a great orator. 7 will moisten 

the ground. 8. There on the hill stands 

Write with each of these subjects: 1st, a grammatical predicate ; 2d, a 
logical predicate: 

1. The full moon (1. Gram, pred.: The full moon had 

risen; 2. Log. pred.: The full moon shone softly upon the peaceful 

landscape). 2. Our dear parents 3. The girl who is kind 

and gentle 4. That tall mountain 5. The flowers 

now buried under the winter snow 6. The palace of the 

queen 7. Rivers 8. The beautiful rainbow 

LESSON LXL 
TERMS IN SYNTAX. 

When is one word said to agree with another? 

When it corresponds with it in gender, number, person, 
or case; as, "John has his book;" "The girl writes a 
letter." Here his agrees in gender and number with John, 
and writes agrees in number and person with girl. 

When does one word govern another? 

When it determines its case; as, "I see him." Here 
the transitive verb see requires its object, him, to be in the 
objective case ; hence we say him is governed by see. 

When does one word depend upon another? 

When any of its grammatical properties are determined 
by that word. 

When is one word said to belong to another? 

When it attends that word merely as a modifier of its 
meaning, having no influence upon its grammatical proper- 
ties; as, "The man; large apples." Here the belongs to 
man and large to apples. 

When is one word said to modify another? 

When it in any way affects the meaning of that word 
by expressing the manner, place, time, degree, or other 



204 SYNTAX. 

attending circumstance; as, "He runs rapidly;" "He fell 
backward;" "I will go soon" 

When is one word said to refer to another? 

When it expresses an act or state attributed to that 
word ; as, ' ' The king soon came in sight, riding on a white 
horse." Here riding expresses an act attributed to king, 
and hence refers to it. 

When is one word said to represent another? 

When it is used instead of that word, and has all the 
properties which the word itself would have in the same 
situation; as, "The man put his horses in the stall and 
fed them." Here them is used instead of horses, and 
represents it. 

LESSON LXII. 

THE ARTICLE. 

In the sentence, The boy plays, what is thef 

The is an article, a word joined to a noun to 

define it. 

What relation does it sustain to the other words in the 
sentence? 

It belongs to the noun boy, which it defines. 

This is of sufficient importance to constitute a rule. 
What then is the first rule of syntax 1 

Rule I. Articles belong to the nouns which 

they define; as, 

A book; an apple; the sun; the mountains. 

We can not say a boys, an apples; but a boy, an apple. Of 
what number then must the noun be to which a or an belongs? 

Note 1. The indefinite article a or an belongs to the 
nouns of the singular number; as, 
A horse; an eagle. 



THE ARTICLE. 205 

(a) The indefinite article may be used before few, dozen, 
hundred, etc., with plural nouns; as, 
We have a few books; 
I saw a hundred men in the street. 

We may say the boy or the boys, using either number. What 
note can you give for this? 

Note 2. The definite article the belongs to nouns of 
the singular or plural number; as, 

The child plays; 

The children go to school. 

What note can you give for the use of a and an? 
Note 3. A is used before consonant-sounds ; as, 
A letter; a pretty girl; a union. 

(a) An is used before vowel-sounds ; as, 
An elephant; an oyster; an hour. 

Do we say, A stone is much used for building the houses? 
No; we mean stone generally and houses as a class; 
hence we say, Stone is much used for building houses. 
What note can you apply? 

Note 4. The article is omitted when we refer chiefly to 
the nature of objects, or to the class generally ; as, 
Grass is good food for cattle; 
Men are generally taller than women. 

If I say, A bison inhabits the prairies, does this sentence 
express my meaning? 

It does not ; it implies that a single bison inhabits those 
places, and you wish to say that the species lives there. 
Hence you should say, "The bison inhabits the prairies." 
What note can you give for this? 

Note 5. When a noun in the singular number is used 
to denote the species, it takes the definite article; as, 
The ostrich inhabits Africa; 
Wine is made from the grape. 



206 SYNTAX. 

Do we say, A Mary is coming; the Mary is coming? 

No ; but simply Mary is coming, without any article. 

May I not say, I have a Mary in my school? 

Yes ; because you wish to make the name Mary general, 
or to refer it to a class of girls, of which you have one in 
your school ; hence you use the indefinite article with it. 

May I not say, We crossed the Missouri in a boat? 

Yes ; because you wish to make the proper noun 
Missouri still more definite, so as to denote the river and 
not the state of that name; hence you use the definite 
article before it. 

Will you give a note for these examples? 

Note. 6. The article is generally omitted before proper 
nouns; as, 

Minnie is a good girl; 
My brother lives in Ohio. 

(a) The article a or an may be used with proper nouns 
when we wish to make them general or refer them to a 
class; as, 

I have a Burton among my clerks; 

I once knew an Ivison who was a tailor. 

(6) The article the may be used with proper nouns 
when we wish to make them more definite; as, 

We. crossed the Ohio into Ohio; 

The Norfolk is the finest boat upon the James. 

I met a boy and girl. What is omitted in this sentence? 

The article a before the noun girl; thus, "I met a boy 
and a girl." 

Is it proper to say, / have an apple and peach? 

No; because the noun peach requires a different form 
of the article from an, and it should be expressed ; thus, 
"I have an apple and a peach." 



THE ARTICLE. 207 

Will you give a note for these examples? 

Note 7. When two or more nouns are closely connected 
the article may be omitted with all except the first; as, 
He has bought a house and (a) lot; 
The men, (the) women, and (the) children perished. 

(a) When the nouns require different forms of the article 
it must be expressed with each ; as, 

I saw a horse and an ox in the pasture; 
A hawk and an eagle flew over our heads. 

(6) When the nouns are contrasted the article must be 
used with each; as, 

I saw the boy, but not the girl there; 
I have bought a house, not a lot. 

What is the difference in meaning of these two sentences, / 
have a red and white rose and / have a red and a white rose? 

The first means "I have one rose, which is both red and 
white;" the second means "I have two roses, one red and 
the other white." 

What note can you give for this case? 
■ Note 8. When two or more adjectives express different 
qualities of the same object the article is generally omitted 
with all but the first; as, 

The boy has a black and white dog; 
He is a wise and good man. 

(a) When the adjectives express qualities of different 
objects the article is used with each; as, 
He owns a stone and a brick house; 
I saw the old and the young man in the party. 

When I say, This boy is not so good a writer as reader, what 
do I mean? 

That the boy is not so good a writer as he is a reader, 
referring to the same person. 



208 SYNTAX. 

When I say, This boy is not so good a writer as a reader, what 
may the sentence mean? 

That the boy is not so good a writer as a reader is, 
referring to different persons. 

Will you give a note for these examples? 

Note 9. In comparisons with as or than, when the two 
nouns refer to the same object, the article is used only with 
the first; as, 

The man is as good a clerk as salesman; 
Caesar was a better general than statesman. 

(a) When the nouns refer to different objects, the article 
is used with each; as, 

A horse is a better traveler than a mule; 
He is as fast a talker as a Frenchman. 

Victoria was made a queen of the realm. Is this sentence 
correct? 

No; it should be "Victoria was made queen of the 
realm;" since a queen would imply that the realm had 
more than one queen, and that Victoria w r as merely made 
one of the queens. 

Is it correct to say, The king made Davy knight? 

It is not, because the sentence would imply that there 
was but one person of the dignity of knight. It should 
be "The king made Davy a knight;" that is, one of the 
class of knights. 

What note can you give? 

Note 10. When a noun which is the predicate nomi- 
native or objective of another noun or pronoun denotes 
an office or state peculiar to the individual of which it is 
predicated it omits the article; as, 

My brother was chosen captain of the company; 
George Washington was elected president. 



THE ARTICLE. 209 

(a) When the noun denotes an office or state belonging 
to a class of individuals it takes the article ; as, 
I was chosen a member of the council; 
Arnold was declared a traitor. 

Is it correct to say, He assumed the title of a duke 9 

It is not; duke here means the same as the title itself, 
and the article should be omitted ; thus, the title of duke. 

Is it correct to say, He received the honors of duke? 

It is not ; duke is here used to denote one of a class, and 
hence it should be made general by the article; thus, "He 
received the honors of a duke." 

Will you give a note for these examples? 

Note 11. When a noun joined to another by the prepo- 
sition of means the same thing as the noun to which it is 
joined it omits the article; as, 

We give the ruler of a state the title of governor; 
He lives in the state of Maine. 

(a) When the noun denotes an individual of the class 
which it names it takes the article; as, 

He assumes all the dignity of an alderman; 
This lady has the grace of a marchioness. 

Is it proper to say, He gave money for founding of a college ? 
It is not ; w r e should say for the founding of a college, or 
for founding a college; either inserting the or omitting of 
What note may be given for this? 

Note 12. When a verbal noun is separated from its 
object by the preposition of it requires the article the 
before it; as, 

He made much money by the rearing of stock; 
The building of this house occupied two years. 
When I say, I have a little money; I have a few friends; what 
is my meaning? 

That you have some money, however small the quantity, 
and some friends, however few. 

14 



210 SYNTAX. 

When I say, / have little money; I have few friends; what do 
I mean? 

That you have none worth mentioning of either. 
Will you give a note for this distinction? 
Note 13. A little, a few, implies a real quantity; some 
at least; as, 

There is a little water left; 

We have a few pupils. 

(a) Little, few, implies none, or none of consequence ; as, 

He has little respect for his father; 
The miser will have few friends. 

What additional note can you give for the use of the article? 
Note 14. A or an is sometimes used in the sense of 
each or every; as, 

This land is worth ten dollars an acre; 

We take three meals a day. 

(b) A sometimes has the force of a preposition; as, 

The boys went a fishing. 

(c) An occurs in old writings as a conjunction; as, 

An (if) it were not for thy hoary beard. 

(d) The may be used as an adverb; as, 

The sooner you start the better. 

Exercise 125. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies : 
1. The cloth was cut with a scissors. 2. We rode a hour and 
an half in a omnibus. 3. The king rode upon a black and a white 
horse. 4. First came a rich and poor man in the same carriage. 
5. He was able to buy a house, for he had little money. 6. A 
cross temper gains a little love. 7. I admire the beauty and the 
modesty of this lady. 8. I admire the beauty but not vanity of 
this lady. 9. A field and orchard belong to the farm. 10. John 
is a better writer than a speaker. 11. In removing of his goods 
a few articles had been overlooked. 12. An ox is a slower animal 
than horse. 13. Her husband was officer in the army. 14. A 



PARSING, 



211 



stream runs between the brick and stone house. 15. Napoleon III. 
was proclaimed an emperor of France. 16.. A condor inhabits 
the summit of Andes. 17. James calls his dog by the name of a 
Caesar. 18. She puts on all the airs of princess. 19. The man 
swam across Mississippi. 20. He owns a fine plantation in the 
Mississippi. 21. The fellow pretended to be nobleman, and as- 
sumed the title of a count. 22. I gave the beggar few coppers 
which I had left. 23. The envious man will find a few friends. 
24. "We sailed down Ohio in Water-witch as far as the Louisville. 

Exercise 126. 

Write original sentences as directed below: 



1. One 

2. One 

3. One 

4. One 

5. One 

6. One 

7. One 

8. One 

9. One 

10. One 

11. One 

12. One 

13. One 



illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 
illustrating 



Note 1. 
Note 1 (a). 
Note 2. 
Note 3. 
Note 3 (a). 
Note 4. 
Note 5. 
Note 6. 
Note 6 (a). 
Note 6 (6). 
Note 7. 
Note 7 (a). 
Note 7 (&). 



14. One 

15. One 

16. One 

17. One 

18. One 

19. One 

20. One 

21. One 

22. One 

23. One 

24. One 

25. One 

26. One 



illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat: 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 
illustrat 



Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 
Note 



8. 

8(a). 

9. 

9 (a). 
10. 

10 (a). 
11. 

11 (a). 
12. 
13. 

13 (a). 
14. 

14 (a). 



LESSON LXIIL 
PARSING. 

What does parse mean? 

Parse is from the same word as part; it means to sepa- 
rate a sentence into its parts and tell their properties. 

What is meant by parsing a word? 

Parsing* a word is telling what part of speech it is, its 
grammatical properties, and its relations to the other words 
in the sentence. 



MODEL FOR PARSING AN ARTICLE. 

1. Tell the part of speech, and why. 

2. Tell the class, and why. 

3. Tell the noun to which it belongs. 

4. Give the rule or note which applies. 



212 SYNTAX. 

Exercise 127. 

Parse the articles according to the model: 

1. This little boy bought an orange for his sister Charlotte. 
f 1. An is an article— it is joined to a noun to define it ; 

I 2. Indefinite— it denotes no particular orange; 
Example: -j g Jt belongs to the noun omnge; 

I 4. Rule I— Articles "belong, etc. 

2. The boy leads a dog by a string. 3. I bought a dozen eggs 

and a few apples. 4. The girls have played an hour. 5. The 

tiger is a native of hot countries. 6. He owns a brick and a stone 

house. 7. The raising of armies is an expensive affair. 8. The 

orator delivered a eulogy upon the statesman. 9. The boys go a 

hunting twice a week. 10. The faster I ride the better I like it. 

11. An officer stood before the fort waving a white flag. 

LESSON LXIV. 

THE NOUN— NOMINATIVE CASE. 

In the sentence, The boy plays, what is boy, and in what 
case is it? 

Boy is a noun, and in the nominative case. 

What relation does the noun boy sustain to the rest 
of the sentence? 

It is the subject of the verb flays. 

What rule of syntax may be derived from this relation ? 

Rule II. The subject of a finite* verb is in the 

nominative case; as, 

The horse draws the cart; 
We study our lessons. 

Thomas, your father is coming. In what case is Thomas? 
Thomas is in the nominative case; but it has no verb, 
and is independent of the rest of the sentence. 

* A verb not in the infinitive mood is a finite verb. 



THE NOUN — NOMINATIVE CASE. 213 

"When I say, O sacred city I The boy — oh, where was he? how 
are city and boy used here? 

They are used to call attention to the objects, and are 
in the nominative case without a verb. 
Will you give a note for these examples? 
Note 1. When an address is made the noun or pronoun 
denoting the person or thing addressed is in the nominative 
case independent; as, 

Paul, thou art beside thyself; 
Where are you going, girls? 

(a) A noun used in mere exclamations, or to call attention 
to an object, and having no verb of its own, is in the 
nominative case independent; as, 

Oh! the morals of the day! 

Money! I have not a dollar. 

When I say, His money being lost, he was obliged to work, in 
what case is money? 

Money is in the nominative case before the participle 
being lost 

Can you give a note for this construction? 
Note 2. A noun or pronoun before a participle and 
independent of the rest of the sentence is in the nominative 
case absolute; as, 

My horse having become lame, I procured another; 
A storm coming on, we stopped at a house for shelter. 

(a) The participle of the verb be is sometimes omitted 
in this construction; as, 

Our baggage (being) safe, we now felt at ease; 
Their crops (being) destroyed and winter (being) already 
upon them, the settlers suffered severely. 

When I say, Take a seat, what is the subject of take? 
Thou or you, which is understood; thus, "Take (thou) 
a seal;. 



214 SYNTAX. 

What note can you give for the omission of the subject? 
Note 3. The subject is generally omitted with the 
imperative mood; as, 

Remember (thou) thy Creator; 

Learn (thou or you) something useful every day. 

(a) The subject is often omitted with all except the first 
of several successive verbs having the same subject; as, 

The boys went and (they) opened the door; 

He arose, (he) opened the book, and (he) began to read. 
"What notes can you give as to the position of the subject? 
Note 4. The subject generally precedes the verb; as, 

The boy reads; 

The sun has risen. 

Note 5. In interrogative sentences the subject generally 
follows the verb; as, 

Believest thou this; 
Has the train arrived? 

Note 6. In exclamatory sentences the subject may either 
precede or follow the verb ; as, 
How softly falls the snow! 
How the thunder roars! 

Note 7. The subject is often placed after the verb to 
give greater animation to the style; as, 

Away over the fields flits the gay butterfly; 
On rushed the steeds, to battle driven. 

Note 8. In subordinate clauses introduced by neither 
or nor the subject follows the verb; as, 
You were not there, nor was he; 
I have not seen him, nor have J heard from him. 

Exercise 128. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies: 
1. Him and me are going to school. 2. Them that are whole 
need not a physician. 3. Are them ripe peaches? 4. Him not 
coming as he promised, we started without him. 5. He is older 



THE NOUN — NOMINATIVE CASE. 215 

than me, but I am as tall as him. 6. Who broke this vase? Me. 
7. I for one am not going. Nor me either. 8. Whom do you 
think sent me this letter? 9. Will return your father to-day? 
10. Girls, give me you your books. 11. How long have been you 
waiting? 12. That lady is proud, but she is not pretty, nor she is 
witty. 13. The man arose, he spoke a few words, and he sat 
down again. 

Exercise 129. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule II. 7. One illustrating Note 3 (a). 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 8. One illustrating Note 4. 

3. One illustrating Note 1 (a). 9. One illustrating Note 5. 

4. One illustrating Note 2. 10. One illustrating Note 6. 

5. One illustrating Note 2 (a). 11. One illustrating Note 7. 

6. One illustrating Note 3. 12. One illustrating Note 8. 

MODEL FOR PARSING A NOUN. 

1. Tell the part of speech, and why. 

2. Tell the class, and why. 

3. Tell the gender, and why. 

4. Tell the person, and why. 

5. Tell the number, and why. 

6. Tell the case, and why. 

7. Tell what verb (if any) it is the subject of, or 

what it is governed by. 

8. Give the rule or note which applies. 

Exercise 130. 

Parse the nouns in the nominative case according to the model: 

1. Many beautiful and fragrant flowers bloom in the garden. 

1. Flowers is a noun— it is a name of something; 

2. Common— it is a general name ; 

3. Neuter gender— it denotes objects neither male nor female; 

4. Third person— it denotes objects spoken of: 

5. Plural number— it denotes more than one; 

6. Nominative case— it sustains the relation of subject; 

7. Subject of the verb bloom; 

8. Rule II— The subject of a finite verb, etc. 

2. The wind blew and the rain fell. 3. Virtue secures happiness. 
4. Our Father in heaven ! watch over us this night. 5. Ah ! the 
misery of suspense! 6. Our fathers — where are they? 7. His 
errand having been performed, he returned home. 8. O sacred 



Ex.: 1 



216 SYNTAX. 

Truth ! thy triumph ceased awhile. 9. Knows not the child his 
name? 10. Could not the vessel have been saved? 11. Their 
crops secured and their minds at ease, the farmers sit by their 
winter fires. 

LESSON LXV. 

THE NOUN— POSSESSIVE CASE. 

In the sentence, Mary's eyes are blue, what relation does 
the noun Mary's sustain to the other words? 

It sustains the relation of possessor to eyes, and 
is therefore in the possessive case. 

What word makes it a possessor or governs its case? 

The noun eyes, which denotes the thing pos- 
sessed. 

Will you give a rule for this government? 

Rule III. The possessive case is governed 
by the noun which denotes the thing possessed; as, 

The preacher's discourse was eloquent; 
Have you read the President 's message. 

In the sentence, / live at my uncle's, what is omitted here? 
Some word, as house; thus, "I live at my uncle's house." 
What note can you give? 

Note 1. The noun governing the possessive case is 
sometimes omitted when it can he easily supplied; as, 

He has gone to the butcher's; 

This is a poem of Milton's. 

What note can you give for a succession of possessives? 

Note 2. When a succession of possessives would pro- 
duce harshness some of them may be changed to the objective 
with the preposition of; as, 

The mother of Captain Smith's wife; (instead of) 
Captain Smith's wife's mother. 



THE NOUN — POSSESSIVE CASE. 217 

In the sentence, / did not hear of the ship's being lost, what 
governs ship's? 

The verbal noun being lost. 
What note will you give? 

Note 3. The possessive case is sometimes governed by 
a verbal noun; as, 

The traveler's being lame, made his progress slow; 
His having once been caught, made him shy. 

When I say, I have Mary and Lucy's presents, what does this 
sentence imply? 

That Mary and Lucy own the presents in common. 

In what case then is Mary? 

In the possessive case without the possessive sign. 

I passed Smith's and Newton's farms. What does this imply? 

That Smith and Newton own separate farms. 

What note can you give for these examples? 

Note 4. When two or more nouns imply common pos- 
session the last only takes the possessive sign; as, 
I called upon the boy and girl's mother; 
That house is Alice, Jane, and Fannie' s home. 

(a) If the nouns imply separate possession, each takes 
the possessive sign; as, 

The boy's and girl's statements did not agree; 

He followed neither his father's nor his mother's advice. 

This is Saxe the poet's house. How is poet's used here? 

It denotes the same person as Saxe, and is annexed to 
it to show w r hat Saxe is meant — Saxe the poet. 

What is a noun thus used called? 

An appositive; thus, poetfs is an appositive of Saxe. 

In what case is Saxe above? 

In the possessive case without the possessive sign. 



218 SYNTAX. 

I live at Hall, a rich and generous man's. Is this proper? 
No; it should be, "I live at Hall's, a rich and generous 
man. 

"Will you give a note for these examples? 
Note 5. When a noun and its appositive stand together 
in the possessive case the last only takes the possessive 
sign; as, 

Have you seen Peale the artist's last painting? 
Has Jones the tailor's hill "been paid? 

(a) If the governing noun is omitted and the appositive 
is modified by other words, or if there are several appositives, 
the first noun only takes the sign ; as, 

I hough t the hook at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer; 

I dined at Captain Wilson's, an old and valued friend. 

I visited the Earl's of Richmond estate. Is this correct? 

It is not; Earl of Richmond is regarded as one name, 
and the possessive sign is annexed to the last noun ; thus, 
"I visited the Earl of Richmond! s estate." 

What note can you give? 

Note 6. When an adjunct to a noun in the possessive 
is so closely connected with it in sense that the two are 
used as one appellation the adjunct-noun alone takes the 
possessive sign; as, 

This is the Queen of England) 's crown; 

Give me a quarter of a dollar's worth of paper. 

How may this sentence he corrected, The lady laughed at the 
simpleton's, as she called him, awkward manners? 

The lady laughed at the awkward manners of the sim- 
pleton, as she called him. 

What note can you give? 

Note 7. A clause should not come between a possessive 
and its governing noun; as, 

This was the tattler's, as she was called, last tale; 
( Corrected) This was the last tale of the tattler, as she was called. 



THE NOUN — POSSESSIVE CASE. 219 

Exercise 131. 

Correct the errors and give the rule or note which applies: 
1. I left the cloth at the tailor. 2. This dress of Mary is very- 
pretty. 3. Is there any chance of us having a holiday? 4. I 
never heard of the lady being a widow. 5. The man leaving the 
gate open was the cause of the pig getting into the garden. 6. I 
have been reading a work of Shakespeare. 7. I have read the 
complete works of Shakespeare's. 8. She showed me the stupid 
fellow's, as she called him, letter. 9. I have just settled Clark's 
the grocer's account. 10. This was his father but not his mother's 
advice. 11. That young man is the Duke's of Newcastle oldest 
son. 12. The safety lamp was an invention of Davy. 13. I spent 
the night at Smith, an old and valued friend's. 14. I bought the 
medicine at Brown, the apothecary and chemist's. 

Exercise 132. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule III. 6. One illustrating Note 4 (a). 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 7. One illustrating Note 5. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 8. One illustrating Note 5 (a). 

4. One illustrating Note 3. 9. One illustrating Note 6. 

5. One illustrating Note 4. 10. One illustrating Note 7. 

Exercise 133. 

Parse the nouns in the possessive case according to the model for nouns, 
applying under 8 the appropriate rule or note: 

1. My father's horse was sold for one hundred and ten dollars. 

1. Father's is a noun— it is a name of a person; 

2. Common— it is a general name; 

3. Masculine gender— it denotes a male; 

4. Third person— it denotes the person spoken of; 

5. Singular number — it denotes but one; 

6. Possessive case— it denotes the possessor: 

7. And is governed by the noun horse; 

8. Rule III— The possessive case is governed, etc. 

2. The lion's strength is very great. 3. A hero's name is greater 
than a king's. 4. I spent the night at my friend Clark r s. 5. This 
is the home of my friend's wife's father. 6. He was detained on 
account of his son's being sick. 7. I bought the articles at Jones 
and Parker's store. 8. This is the Earl of Barrenhead's youngest 
son. 9. He is agent for Howe's and Singer's sewing-machines. 



Ex. 



220 SYNTAX. 

LESSON LXVI. 

THE NOUN— OBJECTIVE CASE. 

In the sentence, The dog bit the pig, what relation does 
the noun pig sustain to the other words ? 

It sustains the relation of object to the verb bit, 
and is therefore in the objective case. 

What word governs its case? 

The verb bit. 

What kind of a verb is bit, and why? 

A transitive verb, because it has an object. 

Since then a verb governs the case of its object, what 
rule may be derived from this fact? 

Rule IV. Transitive verbs in the active voice 
govern the objective case; as, 

The boy cut his finger; 
The girl writes a letter. 

He lived a happy life. What is the object of lived here? 
Life, which is a noun of kindred meaning to the verb. 
What note can you apply? 

Note 1. An intransitive verb may govern an objective 
of kindred meaning to the verb itself; as, 

He ran a race; 

The man died a miserable death. 

Walk your horse over this bridge. How is walk used here? 
It is used in a causative sense; thus, "Cause your horse 
to walk," etc. 

In what case is horse then? 

In the objective case, the object of walk. 



THE NOUN — OBJECTIVE CASE. 221 

Will you give a note for such examples? 
Note 2. An intransitive verb used in a causative sense 
governs the objective case; as, 

The captain marched his company to the field; 

He works his men very hard. 

What additional note can you give for intransitive verbs? 
Note 3. Intransitive verbs are sometimes used transi- 
tively, and thus govern an objective case; as, 

Look danger in the face; 

They talked the hours away. 

What note as to the position of the objective case? 
Note 4. The objective case generally follows the verb 
which governs it; as, 

Cain slew his brother; 

The soldiers attacked the fort. 

(a) The objective is sometimes (especially in poetry) 
placed before the governing verb, when ambiguity would 
not be caused; as, 

His trusty sword the hero drew; 

His head the chief uncovered, and thus spoke. 

(6) When the objective is a relative pronoun it precedes 
the governing verb; as, 

He is the man whom I saw; 

I have lost the book which you gave me. 

Exercise 134. 

Correct the errors and give the rule or note which applies: 

1. Who did you see at the theater? 2. He invited my sister 
and I to spend the summer with him. 3. He who is idle you 
should punish, not I who am studious. 4. I must show who I 
mean by the gentry. 5. You may marry whosoever you choose. 
6. The waiters serve theirselves first. 7. He and they we know, 
but who are you? 7. This is the scholar we think whom deserves 
the prize. 



222 SYNTAX. 



Exercise 135. 



Ex. 



Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule IV. 4. One illustrating Note 3. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 5. One illustrating Note \ 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 6. One illustrating Note 4 (a). 

Exercise 136. 

Parse the nouns in the objective case according to the model for nouns, 
applying under 8 the appropriate rule or note: 

1. The little girls roll their hoops gayly upon the grassy lawn. 

1. Hoops is a noun— it is a name of something; 

2. Common— it is a general name; 

3. Neuter gender— it denotes objects neither male nor female ; 

4. Third person— it denotes the objects spoken of; 

5. Plural number— it denotes more than one; 

6. Objective case— it sustains the relation of object; 

7. And is governed by the verb roll; 

8. Rule IV— Transitive verbs in the active voice, etc. 

2. The boy spins his top. 3. Good children love their parents. 
4. George lost his sister's book. 5. The bird builds its nest and 
lays its eggs. 6. Fire burns wood and cooks our food. 7. He 
taught us arithmetic. 8. They danced their cares away. 9. He 
grinned a ghastly smile. 10. This pretty book my uncle gave me. 



LESSON LXVII. 

THE NOUN— OBJECTIVE CASE ADJUNCT. 

In the sentence, The horse jumped over the fence, what 
relation does the noun fence sustain to the other words? 

It is the object of the relation expressed by 
the preposition over, and is therefore in the 
objective case. 

What rule may be derived from this relation? 

Rule V. Prepositions govern the objective 
case ; as, 

His hat hangs upon a nail; 

The moon shone through a cloud. 



THE NOUN — OBJECTIVE CASE ADJUNCT. 223 

In the sentence, Give this lady a seat, in what case is lady? 

In the objective case governed by the preposition to, 
which is understood; thus, "Give (to) this lady a seat." 

What note can you give as to the omission of the preposition? 

Note 1. The preposition governing the objective case 
is often omitted: 

(a) When the objective comes between a transitive verb 
and its object; as, 

Buy (for) me a knife; 

Show (to) the teacher your book. 

(6) After near, like, opposite, and some other words ; as, 
He lives near (to) the city; 
He is like (to) his father. 

(c) Before all but the first of several successive objects 
in close connection; as, 

He strives for honor, (for) wealth, and (for) power. 

What note for the position of the objective of a preposition? 
Note 2. The objective case generally follows the prepo- 
sition which governs it; as, 

Clouds float in the air; 

Across this river extends a bridge. 

(a) In poetry the objective sometimes precedes the 
governing preposition; as, 

She lived these peaceful vales among; 
They walked the jungle through. 

Exercise 137. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies 
1. Who will you vote for? 2. He sent several presents to my 
sister and I. 3. I will lend to you my book. 4. They were all 
present but he and I. 5. There will be trouble between you and 
he. 6. Who did you send the letter to? 7. I will give the money 
to whoever I choose. 8. Lend that book me. 9. The travelers 
asked for food, for clothing, and for shelter. 10. Her eyes are 
like to her sister's. 



224 SYNTAX. 



Exercise 138. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule V. 4. One illustrating Note 1 (c). 

2. One illustrating Note 1 (a). 5. One illustrating Note 2. 

3. One illustrating Note 1 (6). 6. One illustrating Note 2 (a). 

Exercise 139. 

Parse the nouns in the objective case adjunct according to the model for 
nouns, applying under 8 the appropriate rule or note: 

1. The pig ran into the garden, but the dog drove him out. 

1. Garden is a noun— it is a name of something; 

2. Common— it is a general name; 

3. Neuter gender— it denotes an object neither male nor female ; 

4. Third person— it denotes the object spoken of; 

5. Singular number— it denotes but one ; 

6. Objective case— it denotes the object of a relation; 

7. And is governed by the preposition into; 

8. Rule V— Prepositions govern, etc. 

2. The boy goes to school. 3. We live in Kichmond. 4. Kain 
falls from the clouds upon the earth. 5. The river flows through 
the valley under the bridge into the ocean. 6. The boys slide 
down the hill on their sleds. 7. Tell the lady your name. 8. Up 
the tree scampered the squirrel. 9. Flowers bloom in the fields, 
gardens, and forests. 10. The school-house stands opposite the 
church near the bridge. 11. They sat the silvery moon beneath. 



Ex. : ^ 



LESSON LXVIII. 
THE NOUN— OBJECTIVE CASE RESTRICTIVE. 

In the sentence, The lake is a mile wide, what relation 
does the noun mile sustain to the other words? 

It serves to restrict the meaning of the adjec- 
tive wide to a certain extent — namely , a mile; 
hence it is in the objective case restrictive. 

The river rose four feet. How is the noun feet used here? 

It is used to restrict the meaning of the verb 
rose to a certain extent — namely, four feet — and 
is in the objective case restrictive. 



THE NOUN — OBJECTIVE CASE RESTRICTIVE. 225 

What rule may be derived from these examples? 

Rule VI. A noun used to restrict the meaning 
of an adjective or a verb, by telling the space, time, 
or measure to which it extends, is in the obj ective 
case restrictive; as, 

I am twelve years old; 

Baltimore is fifty miles from Washington. 

What note can you give under this rule? 
Note 1. A preposition may often be supplied before 
the objective restrictive; as, 

I remained there [during) a week; 

The workmen went (to) home. 

In the sentence, I was taught grammar ', how is grammar used? 
It restricts the meaning of the verb was taught, and is 
in the objective case restrictive. 
What note may be given? 

Note 2. A verb in the passive voice may govern the 
objective case restrictive; as, 

"We were taught many useful things; 
He was fined fifty dollars. 

Exercise 140. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule VI. 2. One illustrating Note 2. 

Exercise 141. 

Parse the nouns in the objective case restrictive according to the model 
for nouns, applying under 8 the appropriate rule or note: 

1. My youngest sister will be ten years old next September. 

1. Years is a noun— it is a name of something; 

2. Common— it is a general name; 

3. Neuter gender— it denotes objects neither male nor female ; 

4. Third person— it denotes the objects spoken of; 

5. Plural number— it denotes more than one; 

6. Objective case restrictive— it restricts another word; 

7. And is governed by the adjective old; 

8. Rule VI— A noun used to restrict, etc. 

15 



Ex. 



226 SYNTAX. 

2. The well is twenty feet deep. 3. We play two hours every 
morning. 4. My new book cost two dollars. 5. My little brother 
weighs forty pounds. 6. The monument is two hundred feet high. 
7. This boy does not care a fig for his books. 8. His brother is a 
good deal larger than he is. 9. We were asked our opinion of 
the subject. 10. This milk is a little sour. 11. He is a thousand 
dollars in debt. 12. That house is worth five thousand dollars. 
13. His coat is a world too big for him. 

LESSON LXIX. 
THE NOUN— OBJECTIVE CASE SUBJECT. 

I believe him to be honest. In what case is him here? 

In the objective case. 

Is it the object of the verb believe? 

It is not; the phrase him to be honest is the 
object of believe. 

To what is the phrase him to be honed equivalent? 

To a nominal clause; thus, "I believe that he is 

honest" 

When a clause is thus abridged into a phrase what 
changes are made? 

The verb is put in the infinitive mood, and its 
nominative subject is changed into an objective subject. 

What rule can you give for this construction? 

Rule VII. When an infinitive phrase is an 
abridgment for a nominal clause its subject is 
in the objective case; as, 

I believe the story to be false; 
He thinks himself to be wise. 

In the sentence, It is time for us to go, in what case is us? 
In the objective case subject of the infinitive to go. 



THE NOUN APPOSITIVE. 227 

What then is the object of the preposition for? 
The infinitive phrase us to go. 
What note can you apply? 

Note 1. The infinitive with its objective subject when 
not governed by a transitive verb is often introduced by 
the preposition for; as, 

He gave the order for us to start; 
It is better for the men to remain 

Exekcise 142. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. Two illustrating Rule VII. 2. Two illustrating Note 1. 

Exercise 143. 

Parse the nouns in the objective case subject according to the model 
for nouns, applying under 7 the appropriate rule or note : 

1. I never knew figs to grow upon thistles. 

1. Figs is a noun— it is the name of something; 

2. Common — it is a general name; 

3. Neuter gender— it denotes objects neither male nor female; 
Ex.: -j 4. Third person— it denotes the objects spoken of; 

5. Plural number— it denotes more than one; 

6. Objective case— subject of the infinitive to grow; 
. 7. Rule VII— When an infinitive phrase, etc. 

2. We supposed the money to have "been paid. 3. We considered 

the house to he worth the money. 4. The captain commanded his 

horse to he "brought. 5. When we awoke we found our sacks to 

he stolen. 6. She fancies herself to he an heiress. 7. It is time for 

school to commence. 8. It is too late for you to return to-night. 

9. It is "better for the children to stay at home. 

LESSON LXX. 

THE NOUN— APPOSITIVE. 

In the sentence, Paul the apostle went to Rome, how is 
the noun apostle used? 

It denotes the same person as Paul, and is 

apposed or annexed to the noun Paul to explain 



228 SYNTAX. 

it, or tell what Paul is meant; it is therefore 
called an appositive. 

What then is an appositive f 

An appositive is a noun or pronoun joined to 
another for the sake of explanation or emphasis, 
and denoting the same object; thus, "Jones, the 
wealthy merchant, is here." 

In what case is apostle in the sentence, "Paul the 
apostle went to Rome?" 

In the nominative case, since Paul is in the 
nominative. 

This is Mason the poet's house. In what case are 
Mason and poefsf 

Mason is in the possessive case, because it de- 
notes the possessor of the house ; and since poefs 
is an appositive denoting the same person, it is 
in the same case, the possessive. 

I saw Brown the sailor to-day. In what case is sailor f 
Sailor is an appositive of Brown, and is in 
the same case — namely, the objective. 

From these examples we see that the appositive takes 
either of the three cases according to that of the noun to 
which it is joined. What rule may be derived? 

Rule VIII. The appositive is in the same case 
as the noun or pronoun to which it is apposed; as, 

No?n., Jones, the merchant, has failed. 

Poss.j Have you paid Dobbs the grocer's account? 

Obj., We crossed the Amazon, the largest river in the world. 



THE NOUN — APPOSITIVE. 229 

To travel comfortably, a necessary thing in my case, was 
impossible. What is the necessary thing spoken of? 

To travel comfortably. 

To what then is thing apposed, and in what case is it? 
Thing is in the nominative case, the appositive of the 
phrase to travel comfortably. 

What note can you give? 

Note 1. A noun may be an appositive of a phrase, 
a clause, or a sentence; as, 

Phrase, To play the flute, his chief delight, was now im- 
possible. 
Clause, That it might rain, a common event, was never 

thought of. 
Sentence, He became a bankrupt, a result which had long 
been expected. 

The notion that she is a beauty has spoiled her. How is the 
clause that she is a, beauty used here? 

As an appositive of notion to show what notion it is. 
What note may be given for this case? 
Note 2. A phrase, a clause, or a sentence may be the 
appositive of a noun; as, 

Phrase, His favorite sport, to hunt the deer, was over. 

Clause, The motion that the petition be granted prevailed. 

Sentence, The maxim, Haste makes waste, is little heeded. 

This man as a rider has few equals. How is rider used here? 

It is annexed to the noun man as a modifier, and, de- 
noting for the time being the same object, may be regarded 
as an appositive. 

In what case is rider then? 

In the nominative case agreeing with man. 

In the sentence, This maris skill as a rider has seldom been 
surpassed, how is rider used? 

As an appositive of marts in the possessive case. 



230 SYNTAX. 

What note can you give? 

Note 3. The appositive of a noun or pronoun is some- 
times joined to it by the conjunction as; as, 

This man as an orator has few equals; 

Your father's office as judge is a responsible one; 

We honor Washington as the savior of our country. 

Exercise 144. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule VIII. 3. One illustrating Note 2. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 4. One illustrating Note 3. 

Exercise 145. 

Parse the appositives according to the model for nouns, applying under 
7 the appropriate rule or note: 

1. Arnold the traitor left the country he had sought to betray. 

1. Traitor is a noun— it is a name; 

2. Common— it is a general name; 

3. Masculine— it denotes a male; 
£x.: «j 4. Third person— it denotes the object spoken of; 

5. Singular number— it denotes but one ; 

6. Nominative case— appositive of Arnold; 
. 7. Rule VIII— The appositive is in the same case, etc. 

2. Paris, the capital of France, is a fine city. 3. Washington, the 

patriot and hero, is honored by his countrymen. 4. He married 

Clara, the sister of his friend William. 5. John the Baptist's 

head was cut off at the Princess Herodias's request. 6. To smoke 

his pipe, his chief solace, was now denied him. 7. The pretense 

that she was an heiress did not avail her. 8. This boy as a writer 

excels any in his class. 9. Thompson and Hawkins, members of 

the board, visited the school yesterday. 10. I am pleased with 

your father's appointment as chaplain. 

LESSON LXXI. 
THE NOUN— PREDICATE. 

In the sentence, The earth is a planet, what is said or 
predicated of the earth? 

That it is a planet, and hence planet is a 

predicate of earth. 






THE NOUN — PREDICATE. 231 

In what case is planet here? 
Planet denotes the same object as earth, and 
is in the nominative case predicate of earth. 

In the sentence, I believe the earth to be a planet, how is 
planet used? 

It is still a predicate of earth, which is now in 
the objective case. 

In what case then is planet here? 

In the objective case predicate of earth. 

Since planet in these examples changes its case to agree 
with its noun earth, what rule can you derive? 

Rule IX. A noun used as a predicate of 

another noun or pronoun, and referring to the same 
object, is put in the same case; 

God is the Creator of the world; 

The traveler found his companion to he a thief. 

What note can you give under this rule? 

Note 1. The predicate verb is sometimes omitted; as, 
I always considered the man (to be) my friend; 
He must think us (to be) fools. 

The girl was named Mary hy her father. How is Mary used? 

Mary is in the nominative case predicate of girl 

If we change the sentence to the active voice — thus, "Her 
father named the girl Mary"— how is Mary used here? 

Mary is still a predicate, but it is changed in case to 
agree with the noun girl, which has become objective. 

What does Mary denote, and in what case is it? 

It denotes the noun girl as affected by the act of the verb, 
and is in the objective case predicate. 



232 SYNTAX. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 2. A noun joined to another noun or pronoun 
in the objective case, and denoting it as affected by the act 
of the verb, is in the objective case predicate; as, 
Komulus named the city Rome; 
I call my dog Max. 

In the sentence, To be a Christian at all times is not easy, how 
is Christian used? 

It is used as a complement of the verb to be, and is in 
the nominative case predicate, the noun of which it is 
predicated being omitted on account of its being indefinite. 

The fear of being called a coward made him brave. How is 
coward used here? 

It is in the nominative case predicate, the complement 
of the participle being called. 

"What note can you give for these examples? 
Note 3. A noun in the nominative case predicate is 
often used as a complement of an infinitive or a parti- 
ciple ; as, 

To become a learned man requires study; 
His being a good sicimmer saved his life. 

The man went as guide to the party. How is guide used here? 

It is used merely as a predicate of man, and the sentence 
is equivalent to "The man went a guide to the party." 

In what case then is guide? 

In the nominative case predicate of man. 

They engaged the man as guide. How is guide used here? 

It is still a predicate of man, which is now in the objec- 
tive. Hence guide is in the objective case predicate of man. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 4. The predicate noun is sometimes introduced 
by the conjunction as; as, 

He acted as leader of the band; 

We may consider the word as a noun. 



THE NOUN — PREDICATE. 233 

Exercise 146. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies : 
1. Do you think it is him? 2. It was not me that told the 
story. 3. If I was him, I would go. 4. Whom do men say that 
I am. 5. I had no suspicion of its being them. 6. "Who do you 
take us to be? 7. I did not believe it was him. 8. It was not us 
that made the noise. 9. There is no doubt of its having been her. 

Exercise 147. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule IX. 4. One illustrating Note 3. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 5. One illustrating Note 4. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 

Exercise 148. 

Parse the predicate nouns according to the model for nouns, applying 
under 7 the appropriate rule or note: 

1. This youth will become an orator of the highest order. 

1. Orator is a noun— it is a name ; 

2. Common— it is a general name; 

3. Masculine— it denotes a male; 
Example: ■{ 4. Third person— it denotes the object spoken of; 

5. Singular number— it denotes but one; 

6. Nominative case predicate of youth; 

7. Rule IX— A noun used as a predicate, etc. 

2. The diamond is a precious gem. 3. His father died a drunkard. 
4. I am tired of being an idler. 5. Cicero and Antonius were 
elected consuls. 6. Whales are killed with an instrument called 
a harpoon. 7. We suspected him to be an impostor. 8. They 
called the settlement Jamestown, in honor of their king. 9. Her 
daughter is represented as a great heiress. 10. Historians represent 
Brutus as having been a lover of liberty. 11. Do you think me a 
boy? 12. The thought of being called a hero stimulated him. 
13. His being a foreigner prevented his election. 14. There we 
met a chief called Big-foot. 15. I have a faint recollection of his 
having once been a judge. 16. I always regarded the scheme as 
a humbug. 17. Modesty is considered an ornament of youth. 
18. The general had few equals as a soldier, but his character as 
a statesman is not to be commended. 19. I thought the man a 
friend, but he proved to be an enemy. 



234 SYNTAX. 



Exercise 149. 

Parse the articles and nouns in the following sentences. 
At this stage the words may be succinctly parsed according to the 
following order, which should be invariably followed: 

1. The little girls roll their hoops upon the grassy lawn. 

' The Article, definite, belonging to girls; 

Rule I— Articles belong, etc. 
Girls .... Noun, common, feminine, third, plural, 
nominative, subject of the verb 
roll i 
Rule II— The subject, etc. 

2. The clouds nourish the earth with showers. 3. My friends, I 
am happy to see you. 4. The train having already started, we 
returned home. 5. The storm at hand, we sought refuge at the 
nearest house. 6. How brightly shines the sun, the king of day! 
7. Away sped the horsemen over the fields. 8. The captain's best 
horse was stolen by the Indians. 9. The bread was obtained at 
the baker's. 10. This gentleman is Wilson and Martin's clerk. 
11. That shed is Blunt the blacksmith's shop. 12. His mother 
wept tears of joy at his return. 13. The boys sail their little boats 
on the pond. 14. He gives his time to work, study, and amuse- 
ment. 15. The old farm, the scene of my boyish sports, has been 
sold. 16. Such an opportunity you may never have again. 17. To 
become rich, his highest aim, was now easy. 18. This man has 
some reputation as an artist. 19. At last the tyrant died, an event 
which few lamented. 20. Your brother's duties as secretary are 
very light. 21. Thebes and Babylon, famous cities of antiquity, 
are now in ruins. 22. Lawyers Tongue and Bubble were engage^ 
in the case. 23. They received me as the representative of the 
party. 24. The disciples were called Christians. 25. Pythagoras 
styled himself a philosopher. 26. His being a close student gained 
him the prize. 

LESSON LXXII. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

In the sentence, He wears a black hat, what is black, and 
what relation does it sustain to the other words? 

Black is an adjective, and belongs as a qualifier 

to the noun hat. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 235 

What rule of syntax may we derive from this relation? 
Rule X. Adjectives belong to the nouns or 
pronouns which they describe or define; as, 

Minnie has rosy cheeks; 

Many stars shine in the blue sky. 

In the sentence, To see the sun is pleasant, what is pleasant? 

To see the sun. 

To what then does the adjective pleasant belong? 

To the phrase to see the sun. 

That you should forget your books is strange. To what does 
strange belong in this sentence? 

To the clause that you should forget your books. 
"What note can you apply? 

Note 1. The adjective may belong to a phrase or a 
clause which is used as a noun; as, 

To live without care must be pleasant; 

"When the train will arrive is uncertain. 

To be wise requires study. How is the adjective wise used here? 
It is used as the complement of the verb to be, its noun 
being omitted on account of its being indefinite. 

The idea of being rich pleased him. How is rich used here? 
As the complement of the participle being. 
What note can you apply? 

Note 2. An adjective is sometimes used as the comple- 
ment of an infinitive or participle, belonging to some in- 
definite noun; as, 

To be good is better than to be rich; 

There is nothing lost by being careful. 

The peaches are ripe. How is the adjective ripe used here? 
It is used to predicate a quality of peaches. 



236 SYNTAX. 

What note can you give? 

Note 3. An adjective is often used in the predicate of 
a sentence to express a quality belonging to the subject; as, 
The man soon "became rich; 
The story was pronounced false. 

Is it correct to say, The flowers look sweetly? 

It is not. We do not wish to say that the flowers look 
in a sweet manner, but rather to describe the flow T ers ; hence 
we should use the adjective sweet; thus, "The flowers look 
sweet." 

Is it correct to say, The bird sings sweet? 

It is not. Here we wish to describe the manner of 
singing, and not the bird ; hence we should use the adverb 
sweetly; thus, "The bird sings sweetly." 

What note can you apply? 

Note 4. An adjective must be used in the predicate 
of a sentence when we wish to describe the quality of the 
subject; as, 

Alice looks very pretty in her new dress; 
These apples taste sour. 

(a) An adverb must be used when we wish to describe 
the manner of the action; as, 

Alice dances very prettily; 
These plants grow rapidly. 

When I say, The rich are not always happy, what is my 
meaning? 

That rich persons are not always happy. 
What note can you give? 

Note 5. The adjective is sometimes used without its 
noun when the latter can be easily supplied; as, 

The wicked (persons) will be punished; 
Many (persons) do not believe this story. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 237 

Choose the good, shun the evil. How are good and evil used ? 
They are used as names of the abstract qualities which 
they express, and may be regarded as nouns. 
What note can you give for this use? 
Note 6. Adjectives when used as names of their quali- 
ties without referring these qualities to any objects become 
abstract nouns; as, 

He is a lover of the beautiful; 
Forget the past; live for the future. 

Is it correct to say, She behaved very proper? 

It is not. We wish to tell the manner in which she 
behaved; hence we should use the adverb properly; thus, 
"She behaved very properly. 99 

Will you give a note for this use? 

Note 7. Adverbs, and not adjectives, should be used 
to modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and adjuncts; as, 

The girl reads fluently (not fluent)] 

The night was exceedingly dark (not exceeding); 

You have done remarkably well (not remarkable)', 

He acts consistently with his principles (not consistent). 

(a) Two or more adjectives when used to express a single 
property or quality of an object are joined by a hyphen ; as, 
He had deep-blue eyes and wore a light-gray suit. 

In the sentence, I have bought a gold watch, how is gold used ? 
It is used to describe the watch, and is an adjective. 
What note can you give for such examples? 
Note 8. A noun used to express a quality of another 
noun becomes an adjective; as, 

A silver goblet stood on a marble table; 

The summer days are longer than the winter days. 

Is it correct to say, Nellie is fairer than any girl? 
It is not; because Nellie is a girl herself, and the sen- 
tence would imply that Nellie is fairer than herself. 



238 SYNTAX. 

How should the sentence be corrected? 

Since the objects compared are of the same class (namely, 
girls), we must use some word, as other, to exclude Nellie 
from those with whom she is compared; thus, " Nellie is 
fairer than any other girl." 

Is it correct to say, Nellie is fairer than any other boy? 

It is not. The word boy by its own meaning excludes 
Nellie from those with whom she is compared, and the 
word other should not be used; thus, " Nellie is fairer 
than any boy." 

What note may be derived from these examples? 

Note 9. When two like objects or classes of objects 
are compared by the comparative degree with than they 
must be made exclusive by some word, as other; as, 

The rose is fairer than any other flower (not any flower) ; 
Gold is more precious than any other metal (not any 
metal). 

(a) When the objects or classes are unlike the exclu- 
sive word should not be used; as, 

The rose is fairer than any gem (not any other gem); 
Gold is heavier than any stone (not any other stone). 

Is it correct to say, Nellie is the fairest of her sisters? 

It is not. The sentence would imply that Nellie is 
one of her sisters ; and since the words her sisters already 
exclude Nellie, we must use the comparative; thus, "Nellie 
is fairer than any of her sisters." 

May we not say, Nellie is the fairest of the sisters? 

Yes ; because the sisters may include Nellie. 

What note can you give? 

Note 10. When two objects or classes of objects are 
compared by the superlative degree the one must include 
the other; as, 

John is the tallest of the brothers (not of his brothers) ; 
The rose is the fairest of flowers. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 239 

Are these sentences correct, "Nellie is as fair as any other 
girl;" "Nellie is as fair as any girl?" 

They are both correct ; for although girl in the last may 
include Nellie, still Nellie can be as fair as herself, or as any 
other girl. 

Is it correct to say, Nellie is as fair as any other boy? 

It is not; the word other, by implying Nellie as one, 
includes her in the class of boys; it should therefore be 
omitted. 

What note can you give? 

Note 11. When two like objects or classes of objects 
are compared by as the latter may or may not include 
the former; as, 

The rose is as fair as any (or any other) flower; 
John is as good as any (or any other) man. 

(a) When the objects or classes are unlike the exclusive 
word should not be used; as, 

The rose is as fair as any gem (not any other)] 
John is as timid as any woman (not any other). 

What note for the use of adjectives which have a plural form? 

Note 12. Adjectives denoting more than one should not 
be used with a singular noun; as, 

I have seen this (not these) kind of people hefore; 
I never liked that (not those) sort of peaches. 

We say, / have bought twenty head of cattle. Is this sentence 
correct? 

It is. Head is here used figuratively for the whole 
body, and twenty heads might imply the heads alone with- 
out the bodies. 

Is it correct to say, The division contains a thousand horse ? 
It is; because horse is here used technically for horse- 
men, and horses would imply the animals only. 



240 SYNTAX. 

"What note can you apply? 

Note 13. When the singular form of a noun is used 
figuratively for the plural, it may take an adjective im- 
plying more than one; as, 

He owns a hundred yoke of oxen; 
The army lost several cannon. 

What error in this sentence, Virtue and vice are opposites; this 
ennobles the mind, that debases it? 

That should be used in place of this to refer to virtue, 
and this in place of that to refer to vice; thus, " Virtue and 
vice are opposites; that (virtue) ennobles the mind, this 
(vice) debases it." 

What note can you give? 

Note 14. When objects are contrasted that (those, the 
former, the one) refers to the first mentioned, this (tliese, the 
latter, the oilier) to the last; as, 

Idleness and industry produce their appropriate results ; 

that (idleness) brings poverty, this (industry) wealth. 
He had a horse and a cow ; the former ran away, the latter 

was sold to pay a debt. 
Summer and winter both have their pleasures; the one 

brings its sunny days, the other its fireside sports. 

What note can you give for this here (this 'ere) and that 
there (that ' ere)1 

Note 15. This here and that there are vulgarisms, and 
should be avoided; as, 

Take this pencil (not this here, or this 'ere)-, 
See that building there (not that 'ere building). 

What note for the improper use of them? 
Note 16. The pronoun them should not be used for the 
adjective those; as, 

I gave Henry those (not them) apples; 

Which books will you take? Those (not them). 



THE ADJECTIVE. 241 

Have you cut either of your fingers ? I have cut neither of 
them. Are these sentences correct? 

They are not. Any one should be used instead of either, 
and no one instead of neither. 

What note can you give for this use? 
Note 17. Either, neither, and each other properly refer 
to two objects only; as, 

Has he lost either of his eyes? 

Neither of the two men is here; 

The boy and girl love each other; 

Has any one (not either) of the three girls arrived? 

No one (not neither) of the family was at home; 

The pupils all love one another (not each other). 

Is it correct to say, Each of them must bring their books? 
It is not; their should be either his or her.* 
What note can you apply? 

Note 18. Each, every, either, and neither represent 
objects taken singly, and require the nouns, pronouns, or 
verbs referring to them to be in the singular number; as, 
Each girl must keep her (not their) seat; 
Every man has his (not their) faults; 
Either of you may recite his lesson; 
Neither of you can keep her own secret. 

(a) With a plural noun modified by a numeral these 
adjectives may be used to denote the whole as one aggre- 
gate; as, 

Each hundred years is a century; 

He visits us every six weeks. 

What note as to the use of double comparatives? 
Note 19. Double comparatives and superlatives are im- 
proper ;f as, 

This is a worse (not worser) road than that; 

This is the straightest (not most straightest) road. 

•'His, if the reference is to males, or males and females together ; her, if 
the reference is to females; its, if to objects neither male nor female, 
f Lesser is used by good writers; as, "Lesser Asia." 

16 



242 SYNTAX. 

What notes can you give as to the position of the adjective? 
Note 20. The adjective generally stands immediately 
before its noun; as, 

I have a new book; 
We have many friends. 

Note 21. The adjective generally follows its noun in 
the following cases: 

(a) When it is followed by an adjunct or by an objective 
restrictive; as, 

We have food suitable for us; 
I have a rule a foot long. 

(b) When it is predicated of a noun or pronoun which 
is the subject or object of a verb; as, 

This man is generous; 

We found him well and happy. 

Note 22. All is often separated from its noun by the 
article the or a pronoun; as, 

All the passengers were saved; 
He lost all his property. 

Note 23. Many when used with a singular noun is 
separated by a or an; as, 

Many a flower blooms unseen; 

I have passed many an idle hour in this grove. 

Note 24. Adjectives preceded by so or as before a 
singular noun are separated from it by a or an; as, 

She is as pretty a girl as I ever saw; 
Do not neglect so good an opportunity. 

Note 25. When two or more adjectives are joined to 
the same noun that one which expresses the most essential 
quality should be placed next to the noun; as, 

I met a poor old man (not an old poor man); 

He rode a large white horse. 









THE ADJECTIVE. 



Exercise 150. 



243 



Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies: 
1. This rose smells sweetly. 2. That young lady dances very 
graceful. 3. I can never think so mean of him. 4. We traveled 
as safe in the cars as in our own carriage. 5. Ellen looks neatly 
in her pink new dress. 6. The sky was of a deeply blue color. 
7. That tree is fifty foot high. 8. Those sort of people are never 
happy. 9. Look sharp, if you wish to see good. 10. He came 
agreeable to his promise. 11. My uncle has five yokes of oxen. 
12. The drover lost half his horse in the river. 13. The elephant 
has more sagacity than any animal. 14. The army numbers one 
thousand horses and ten thousand feet. 15. Eve was the fairest 
of her daughters. 16. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. 
17. Venus is brighter than any star in the firmament. 18. Ellen 
is a little sweet girl with blue mild eyes. 19. I liked him the best 
of all the others that spoke. 20. Do not touch them books lying 
on that 'ere table. 21. He keeps a dog and a cat; the former to 
clear his house of mice, the latter to bark at the beggars. 22. My 
horse is not lame in either foot, nor blind in any of his eyes. 
23. Have you seen either of my three sisters? 24. Each of you 
must attend to their own affairs. 25. Husband and wife should 
love one another. 26. Between the two cities flows a two miles 
wide river. 27. God pronounced all good things. 28. Pupils must 
not talk to each other in school. 29. It was a hard to understand 
question. 30. I have never known a so cold winter. 31. She was 
dressed very rich, and appeared very proudly. 32. None of my 
feet are lame, and all my eyes are sound. 33. Who is that young 
tall man who wears a black old hat? 



Exercise 151. 

Write original sentences as follows: 



1. One illustrating Rule X. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 

4. One illustrating Note 3. 

5. One illustrating Note 4. 

6. One illustrating Note 4 (a). 

7. One illustrating Note 5. 

8. One illustrating Note 6. 

9. One illustrating Note 7. 



10. One illustrating Note 7 (a). 

11. One illustrating Note 8. 

12. One illustrating Note 9. 

13. One illustrating Note 10. 

14. One illustrating Note 10 (a). 

15. One illustrating Note 11. 

16. One illustrating Note 12. 

17. One illustrating Note 12 (a). 

18. One illustrating Note 13. 



244 SYNTAX. 

19. One illustrating Note 14. 26. One illustrating Note 20. 

20. One illustrating Note 15. 27. One illustrating Note 21 (a). 

21. One illustrating Note 16. 28. One illustrating Note 21 (6). 

22. One illustrating Note 17. 29. One illustrating Note 22. 

23. One illustrating Note 18. 30. One illustrating Note 23. 

24. One illustrating Note 19. 31. One illustrating Note 24. 

25. One illustrating Note 19 (a). 32. One illustrating Note 25. 

MODEL FOR PARSING AN ADJECTIVE. 

1. Tell the part of speech, and why. 

2. Tell the class, and why. 

3. Tell the degree (if compared). 

4. Tell to what it belongs. 

5. Give the rule or note which applies. 

Exercise 152. 

Parse the adjectives according to the model: 

1. James Brown, the merchant, is the richest man in the city. 

r 1. Richest is an adjective— a word joined 
to a noun to describe or define it ; 

2. Descriptive— it describes its noun; 

3. Superlative degree; 

4. And belongs to the noun man; 
. 5. Rule X— Adjectives belong, etc. 

2. Venus is the brightest star in the heavens. 3. Eipe peaches are 
healthful fruit. 4. These apples are very sweet. 5. To learn a 
foreign language is difficult. 6. The wind blows soft and cool. 
7. It is necessary to be prudent. 8. She is fond of being called 
handsome. 9. I did not believe the story to be true. 10. The 
poor have their pleasures and the rich their cares. 11. Nellie has 
bright-yellow hair and light-blue eyes. 12. He lives in a brick 
house with stone front. 13. The Bible is the best of all books. 



LESSON LXXIII. 

THE VERB. 

We say, I love, thou loved, he laves. Why do we use 
different forms of the verb in these expressions? 

To make it agree in person with its subject, I> 

thou, or he. 



Example : 



THE VERB. 245 

We say also, He loves, they love. Why do we use dif- 
ferent forms of the verb here? 

To make it agree in number with its subject, 
he or they. 

What rule of syntax may be derived from these ex- 
amples ? 

Rule XI. The verb agrees with its subject in 

person and number ; as, 

I write a letter, thou writest a letter, he writes a letter; 
The girls write letters. 

"We say, The boy plays, but The boy and girl play. Why do 
we use the plural verb play in the latter example? 

Because boy and girl both perform the same act together, 
and are equivalent to a plural subject; hence the verb 
is plural. 

What note can you give? 

Note 1. Two or more nominatives not appositives taken 
together as subjects of the same affirmation require a plural 

verb; as, 

Time and tide wait for no man; 

The horse, cow, and sheep are in the field. 

When I say, That great general and statesman was born here, 
to how many individuals do I refer? 

To but one individual, who was both a general and 
statesman. 

Should the verb then be singular or plural? 

The verb should be singular, since it is affirmed of a 
single individual; was born is therefore correct. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 2. When two or more nominatives connected by 
and denote the same individual the verb is singular; as, 
The wife and mother kneels in prayer; 
A generous man and worthy citizen has departed. 



246 SYNTAX. 

In the sentence, Chasing and killing buffaloes is very exciting 
sport, should the verb be is or are? 

The verb should be is. The terms chasing and hilling 
as used here are so near akin that they may be considered 
as forming one idea which is the real subject, and which 
therefore takes a singular verb. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 3. When two or more nominatives connected by 
and are so near akin as to form a single idea the verb is 
singular; as, 

Buying and selling gold is uncertain business; 

To sit at a desk and write all day is very tiresome. 

When I say, James and John go to school, I mean they both go; 
but when I say, James or John goes to school, what do I mean? 

That either James goes to school, or John goes ; but not 
that they both go. 

Should I then use a singular or plural verb? 
A singular verb; thus, " James or John goes to school." 
Is it correct to say, Every man and every woman were present ? 
It is not ; because every denotes objects taken separately, 
and hence the verb should be singular — namely, was present. 
What words thus represent things taken separately? 
Every, each, no, or, nor, and not, but also, as well as. 
What note may be drawn from these illustrations? 
Note 4. Two or more singular nominatives taken 
separately require a singular verb; as, 

Every tree and every shrub was destroyed; 

Each man and each woman was invited; 

No captain and no sailor was on board; 

The boy or girl goes to market; 

Neither the father nor the son was saved; 

The banker, and not the merchant, has failed; 

Not only the house, but also the farm, was sold; 

The ship, as well as the cargo, vias saved. 



THE VERB. 247 

(a) If one of the nominatives is plural, the verb is either 

plural or agrees with that one of which it is asserted; as, 

Mary or her sisters are coming to see us; 

Books, and not pleasure, occupy his mind; 

Pleasure, and not books, occupies his mind. 

"What note can you give as to the person of the verb? 
Note 5. When two or more nominatives taken sepa- 
rately are of different persons, the verb takes the person 
either of the nearest one or of that one of which it is 
asserted; as, 

Neither he nor you are to blame; 
I, not you, am to blame. 

Is it correct to say, His family are very expensive? 

It is not. We refer to the family as a single body, and 
not to the individuals, hence the verb should be singular; 
thus, "His family is very expensive." 

His family walks out together every evening. Is this correct? 

It is not. Here we refer to the individuals composing 
the family, and hence the verb should foe plural; thus, 
"His family walk out together every evening." 

"What note can you derive from these illustrations? 

Note 6. A collective noun requires a singular verb when 
the act or state is ascribed to the collection as a body; as, 
The company is composed entirely of boys; 
The school was dismissed at five o'clock. 

(a) A collective noun requires a plural verb if the act or 
state is ascribed to the individuals of the collection ; as, 

The higher class look with scorn upon those below them ; 
This company use their guns for canes. 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

A committee (a body) was appointed to consider the subject; 
The committee (the individuals) do not agree in the matter; 
Two thousand dollars (one sum) a year is a fair revenue; 



248 SYNTAX. 

Two thousand dollars (individuals) were counted out to him; 
The Jack-o'-lantern Oil Company (the body) has failed; 
The Jack-o'-lantern Oil Company (the individuals) feel uneasy 
at the news. 

Is it correct to say, The ship with all its stores were lost? 
It is not. The subject ship is singular, and with all its 
stores is only an adjunct; hence the verb should be sin- 
gular — namely, was lost. 
What note can you give? 

Note 7. The adjuncts of the subject do not affect the 
number of the verb; as, 

The number of scholars was very small; 
Nothing but the chimneys was left standing. 

What note for as follows, as appears, etc.? 

Note 8. In the expressions, as follows, as appears, as 
regards, as concerns, as respects, the verbs are impersonal, 
agreeing with a subject it understood; as, 

The account is as (it) follows; 

As (it) regards my brother, he is not here. 

Exercise 153. 

Correct the errors and give the rule or note which applies: 
1. Those boys plays truant every day. 2. What mean this vast 
array of navies and armies? 3. In this country is found some of 
the richest mines in the world. 4. Thou who is the author of life 
alone can restore it. 5. You who has done the deed deserves the 
praise, not I, who were only a spectator. 6. Eecent news have 
been received from the seat of war. 7. You who has just arrived 
are the teacher. 8. So much beauty and modesty is seldom found 
together. 9. The traveler and his horse was buried in the snow. 
10. You are the only teacher who have yet arrived. 11. The firm 
of Grab, Catchpenny & Co. have failed. 12. To build and furnish 
a house like that require money. 13. That a man should promise 
and not pay are no cause for wonder. 14. The lonely father and 
children strews flowers upon the grave where the wife and mother 






THE TENSES. 249 

sleep. 15. The senate have adjourned. 16. The party consist of 
boys and girls. 17. The party has taken their dinners with them. 
18. That company have lost its flag. 19. The army number fifty 
thousand strong. 20. General Greene's staff are a splendid body 
of men. 21. The General dines at the Gait House, and his staff 
takes its dinner at the same place. 22. The Queen's train were 
headed by Lord Bumble. 23. The Queen rides a splendid horse, 
and her train walks slowly behind. 24. The Antiquarian Society 
have published a work on the mound-builders. 25. The jury have 
already been charged by the judge. 26. Every person on board 
were lost. 27. The jury has been consulting together for a long 
time. 28. The sailors, as well as the captain, was saved. 29. The 
vessel with all its stores were lost. 30. The pupils, and not the 
teacher, is to blame. 31. The teacher, and not the pupils, are to 
blame. 32. Washington is dead; the patriot, the hero, and the 
father of his country have departed. 

Exercise 154. 

Write original sentences as directed below: 

1. One illustrating Rule IX. 7. One illustrating Note 5. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 8. One illustrating Note 6. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 0. One illustrating Note 6 (a). 

4. One illustrating Note 3. 10. One illustrating Note 7. 

5. One illustrating Note 4. 11. One illustrating Note 8. 

6. One illustrating Note 4 (a). 

LESSON LXXIV. 
THE TENSES. 

What notes can you give for the use of the tenses? 
Note 9. The perfect participle should not be used for 
the past tense; as, 

I did (not done) my work yesterday; 

He came (not come) two hours ago. 

Note 10. The past tense should not be used for the 
perfect participle; as, 

The thief has stolen (not has stole) my watch; 
My feet are almost frozen (not froze). 



250 SYNTAX. 

Note 11. The present-perfect tense must not be used 
with adverbs, phrases, or clauses denoting time completely 
past; as, 

I completed my work two days ago (not have completed) ; 

He lived in Philadelphia last year (not has lived). 

Note 12. The present-perfect infinitive is used to express 
an act or state prior to that of the governing verb; as, 
Galileo is said to have invented the thermometer; 
The ship is supposed to have been lost in a storm. 

Note 13. The present infinitive is used to express an 
act or state not prior to that of the governing verb; as, 
I intended to go (not to have gone) home yesterday; 
I shall expect to see you to-morrow. 

The experiment proved that air had weight. Is this correct? 
It is not ; because air always has weight. The sentence 
should be, "The experiment proved that air has weight." 
"What note can you give? 

Note 14. Things that are always true should be ex- 
pressed in the present tense; as, 

The preacher proved that the soul is (not was) immortal; 
He would not believe that the earth turns (not turned) 
on its axis. 

Note 15. The intransitive verbs sit and lie must not 
be confounded with the transitive verbs set and lay; as, 
The boys sit (not set) upon stools; 
The maid sets (not sits) the chairs around the table; 
The dog lies (not lays) under the table; 
The boy laid (not lay) his book on the desk. 

Exercise 155. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies: 

1. She done her task very well. 2. I seen the man yesterday. 

3. He is accused of having stole a watch. 4. His friends have all 

forsook him. 5. This man has visited Europe last summer. 6. It 

will grieve your parents to have heard of your conduct. 7. His 



THE MOODS. 251 

works formerly have been much admired. 8. I intended to have 
made my son a lawyer. 9. Copernicus proved that the sun was 
the center of the system. 10. The traveler lay down his cane, 
and set down upon the bank. 

Exercise 156. 

Write original sentences as directed below: 

1. One illustrating Note 9. 5. One illustrating Note 12 (a). 

2. One illustrating Note 10. 6. One illustrating Note 13. 

3. One illustrating Note 11. 7. One illustrating Note 14. 

4. One illustrating Note 12. 8. One illustrating Note 15. 

LESSON LXXV. 

THE MOODS. 

"What note can you give for the use of the indicative mood? 
Note 16. The indicative mood declares a fact, or what 
is assumed as a fact, or asks a question; as, 

A shower of rain fell last night; 

He is happy, although he is poor; 

Have you written the letter? 

Note 17. The hypothetical form of the verb is some- 
times used to express a supposition or condition contrary to 
fact, or a ivish for what is not; as, 

Were I rich (if I was [were] rich) I would travel; 
Had I known (if I had known) this I should not have 

come; 
Oh! that my father were (was) alive. 

"What note for the use of the imperative mood? 
Note 18. The imperative mood is sometimes used in 
the third person; as, 

Kuin seize thee, ruthless king! 
Be it this day enacted. 

MODEL FOR PARSING A VERB. 

1. Tell the part of speech, and why. 

2. Tell the class (hy meaning), and why. 

3. Tell the class (hy form), and why. 



Ex.: ■{ 



252 SYNTAX. 

4. Tell the principal parts (if irregular). 

5. Tell the tense, and why. 

6. Tell the mood, and why. 

7. Tell the voice (if transitive), and why. 

8. Tell the person and number, and what word it 

agrees with. 

9. Give the rule or note which applies. 

Exercise 157. 

Parse the verbs according to the model: 

1. The pupils have taken their seats, and are ready to recite. 

1. Have taken is a verb— it tells what is said of pupils; 

2. Transitive— it takes an object, seats; 

3. Irregular— it does not form its past tense and perfect participle 
by adding d or ed; 

4. Pres. take, past took, perf. part, taken; 

5. Pres.-perf. tense — it expresses an act completed in present time ; 

6. Indicative mood— it declares a fact; 

7. Active voice— it represents its subject as acting; 

8. Third person, singular number, agreeing with its subject, pupils ; 

9. Rule XI— The verb agrees, etc. 

2. I saw your brother yesterday. 3. We had recited our lessons 
before the teacher came. 4. The farmer and his son rode to town. 
5. The horse, as well as the carriage, was much injured. 6. That 
distinguished author and poet was born in London. 7. You, and 
not your brother, have done the wrong. 8. The assembly was 
called to order by the chairman. 9. The river has been frozen 
two weeks. 10. We shall have resided here five years next May. 
11. As appeared from the evidence, the man was innocent. 12. I 
may have received the letter, but I have forgotten it. 13. The 
ship lay at the wharf all night. 14. The gardener sets four trees 
in a row. 15. The soldiers have laid down their arms. 

LESSON LXXVI. 

THE INFINITIVE. 

In the sentence, It is time to recite, what is to recite f 
To recite is a verb in the infinitive mood, and 
modifies the noun time. 



THE INFINITIVE. 253 

What is its subject? 

Its subject is indefinite, and hence omitted. It 
depends upon the noun time, which it modifies. 

What rale may be given for the infinitive t 

Rule XII. The infinitive refers to a subject 

either expressed or indefinite, and depends upon the 

word which it modifies ; as, 

He has no time to improve his mind; 
Children love to play ; 
He is eager to learn. 

To see our friends is pleasant. How is to see used here? 
It is used as the subject of the verb is. 
What note can you give? 

Note 1. The infinitive may be used as the subject or 
object of a verb, as a nominative predicate, or as the object 
of a preposition; as, 

To travel in Europe costs money; 

The boys wish to recite; 

To promise is not to perform; 

They are about to start. 

To confess the truth, I was angry. How is to confess used? 

It is independent of the other words. 

What note can you give? 

Note 2. The infinitive is sometimes used independently; 

as, 

To say the least, he acted very foolishly; 
To proceed with our argument, etc. 

What difference in meaning between these two sentences, He 
is proud to learn, and He is too proud to learn ? 

The one means that he learns with pride; the other 
that he is so proud that he will not learn at all. 



254 SYNTAX. 

The sun is so bright as to dazzle our eyes. What does to dazzle 
denote? 

It expresses a result of the sun's brightness. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 3. The infinitive sometimes expresses a remit, 
depending upon so . . . as, or too ; as, 

He is so conceited as to think himself learned; 
This boy is too lazy to study. 

In the sentence, He works to support his aged mother, what 
does to support express? 

It expresses the purpose for which he works ; thus, 
"He works in order to support his aged mother." 

What note can you apply? 

Note 4. The infinitive depending on a verb is often 
used to denote a purpose; as, 

He went abroad to finish his education; 

I wrote to inform him of your return. 

What notes for the omission of the sign to? 
Note 5. The sign to is omitted after bid, dare (to ven- 
ture), hear, see, feel, let, make, need, may, can, must, might, 
could, would, should, and a few other verbs; as, 
He bids me (to) come; 
He dares not (to) repeat the words. 

(a) After the passive voice of these verbs (such as have 
the passive) the sign to is generally expressed ; as, 
He was seen to enter the house; 
The clock was heard to strike. . 

Note 6. The sign to is often omitted before all but the 
first of several infinitives in the same construction ; as, 

He went abroad to see the country and (to) visit his 

friends ; 
This little boy knows how to read, (to) write, and (to) 
cipher. 



THE INFINITIVE. 255 

What note for the omission of the infinitive? 
Note 7. The infinitive is sometimes omitted; as, 

I believe the whole account (to be) a falsehood; 

I consider the man (to be) honest. 

Exercise 158. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies : 
1. We heard the wind to blow. 2. I have seen some boys to 
behave very badly. 3. You need not to ask him, for he never was 
known give any thing. 4. They made me to enter a private room. 
5. I was made answer a great many questions. 6. He durst not 
to say it. 7. The man dared me fight him. 8. You ought not 
walk so fast. 

Exercise 159. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule XII. 5. One illustrating Note 4. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 6. One illustrating Note 5. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 7. One illustrating Note 6. 

4. One illustrating Note 3. 8. One illustrating Note 7. 

Exercise 160. 

Parse the infinitives according to the model for verbs, applying under 
9 the appropriate rule or note: 

1. We shall be happy to see any of our friends who may call. 

1. To see is a verb; 

2. Transitive— it takes an object, friends; 

3. Irregular— it does not form its past tense, etc. ; 

4. Pres. see, past saw, perf. part, seen; 

5. Present tense— it denotes present time; 

6. Infinitive mood— it represents the act as un- 
limited in person and number ; 

7. Active voice— it represents its subject as acting ; 

8. It depends upon the adjective happy; 

9. Rule XII— The infinitive, etc. 

2. We expect to receive our money to-day. 3. To drive so fast is 
dangerous. 4. To be candid, I was in the wrong. 5. You are too 
poor to be so extravagant. 6. Those peaches are not ripe enough 
to eat. 7. She is so proud as to spoil her beauty. 8. He has gone 
to the city to visit his friends. 9. He made me promise to stay 
and hear the class recite. 10. The Chinese are said to have in- 
vented printing. 11. I heard the bell ring, felt the train start, 
and dared not look back. 



Example : 



256 SYNTAX. 

LESSON LXXVII. 
THE PARTICIPLE. 

In the sentence, I saw a ship sailing on the ocean, what 
is sailing! What relation has it to the other words? 

Sailing is a participle from the verb sail, and 

refers to the noun ship. 

What rule can you give for participles t 

Rule XIII. Participles refer to the nouns or 

pronouns whose act or state they express; as, 

I saw the river glittering in the sunlight; 
Taking his hat, he left the room. 

What note can you give under this rule? 
Note 1. The participle sometimes refers to an indefinite 
subject which is omitted; as, 

( We) Generally speaking, he behaves very well; 
He is far advanced, considering his age. 

A soldier entered bearing a white flag. In what case is flag? 
Flag is in the objective case, and governed by the parti- 
ciple bearing. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 2. Participles from transitive verbs govern the 
objective case; as, 

I met a horse drawing sl loaded wagon; 
Having sold his farm, he removed to the city. 

We rode through fields of waving grain. How is waving used? 
It is used to describe grain, and is a verbal adjective. 
What note can you give? 

Note 3. The participle is sometimes used to describe a 
noun, and becomes a verbal adjective; as, 

We heard the roaring cataract; 

The wearied traveler lay beside a murmuring brook. 



THE PAKTICIPLE. 257 

His living frugally is the cause of his prosperity. How is 
living used here? 

It performs the office of a noun, and is the subject of 
the verb is; hence it is a verbal noun. 
What note can you give? 

Note 4. When the participle has the property of case 
and performs the office of a noun it becomes a verbal 
noun; as, 

The boy was punished for neglecting his duty; 
His having "been sick is the cause of his weakness. 

(a) The verbal noun is generally modified by adverbs, 
and not by adjectives; as, 

The miser takes delight in merely counting his money; 
For easily reading large numbers, we divide them into 
periods. 

(b) If the nominal property is made prominent by the 
use of the article and of, the verbal noun may be modified 
by adjectives; as, 

The miser takes delight in the mere counting of his money; 
For the easy reading of large numbers, we divide them 

into periods; 
This was a base forsaking of his duty. 

Is it correct to say, By taking of exercise we become strong ? 
It is not. Exercise is the object of taking, and of should 
not be introduced to govern it. 
What note can you apply? 

Note 5. Verbal nouns govern objects like the verbs 
from which they are derived, and prepositions should not 
be used after them unless their verbs require the same ; as, 
By reading good books we improve our minds; 
In speaking of his mother he often wept. 

(a) If the article precedes the verbal noun, of must 
follow it; as, 

He delights in the mere counting of his money. 

17 



258 SYNTAX. 

When I say, The house is building, how is the participle build- 
ing used? 

Though building is the active form, it is used in a passive 
sense to denote the incompleteness of the act. 

Why is not the passive participle used? 

Because the imperfect participle passive is not distinct 
in form, and might be mistaken for the perfect passive, 
and hence it would not denote clearly the incompleteness 
required. 

What note can you give for this use? 

Note 6. The imperfect participle active may be used 
in a passive sense when incompleteness is to be specially 
marked and is not indicated by other words ; as, 

Many houses are building here this season; 
The corn was grinding as we passed the mill. 

(a) When the incompleteness is sufficiently shown by 
other words the passive form should be used; as, 

An asylum for orphans is now building here; it is erected 
(not erecting) by the Masonic Fraternity. 

(b) When the subject might be mistaken for the agent 
of the act expressed by the participle the passive form 
should be used; as, 

The court is now in session, and the prisoner is tried (not 
trying) for his life. 

Exercise 161. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies : ' 
1. He hurt himself by the falling from a tree. 2. This was a 
cowardly forsaking his duty. 3. By observing of these rules you 
will avoid mistakes. 4. By the vigorously pursuing his studies 
he became learned. 5. By careful attending to his business he 
became rich. 6. He derives great profit from rearing of sheep. 
7. The robbers made desperate efforts to escape while they were 
carrying to prison by the officers. 



THE PARTICIPLE. 259 



Exercise 162. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule XIII. 6. One illustrating Note 4 (a). 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 7. One illustrating Note 4 (&). 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 8. One illustrating Note 5. 

4. One illustrating Note 3. 9. One illustrating Note 5 (a). 

5. One illustrating Note 4. 10. One illustrating Note 6. 

MODEL FOR PARSING A PARTICIPLE. 

1. Tell its name, and from what verb. 

2. Tell whether transitive or intransitive. 

3. Tell whether imperfect or perfect, and why. 

4. Tell the voice (if transitive), and why. 

5. Tell to what it refers. 

6. Give the rule or note which applies. 

Exercise 163. 

Parse the participles according to the model, the verbal nouns and 
verbal adjectives according to the models for nouns and adjectives: 

1. See that good little girl picking up the old man's cane. 

1. Picking is a participle from the verb pick; 

2. Transitive— it takes an object, cane; 

3. Imperfect— it denotes an act not completed; 

4. Active voice— it represents its subject as acting; 

5. And it refers to the noun girl; 
, 6. Rule XIII— Participles refer, etc. 

2. There were several little boys spinning their tops. 3. Seizing 
the reins, he stopped the frightened horse. 4. Having recited our 
lessons, we went home. 5. Being a soldier, I was used to danger. 
6. I have a new book, given to me by my uncle. 7. The traveler, 
exhausted by his journey, sat down to rest. 8. The fields lying 
along the road were rich with waving grain. 9. Having been 
forsaken by his friends, he became discouraged. 10. He is very 
active, considering his great age. 11. We saw the frightened birds 
flying before the coming storm. 12. His father forbids his going 
to sea. 13. This man is accused of having taken the money. 
14. I was not aware of the lady's being an heiress. 15. He earns 
a living by writing for the newspapers. 16. The Japanese show 
great skill in making trinkets. 



Ex.: 



260 SYNTAX. 



Exercise 164. 

Parse the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and participles:* 

1. The jolly sailors, having raised the anchor, spread their sails. 

Jolly Adjective, descriptive, positive, belonging to 

sailors ; 
Rule X— Adjectives belong, etc. 

Sailors Noun, common, masculine, third, plural, 

nominative, subject of the verb spread; 
Rule II — The subject, etc. 
Ex.: -| Having raised . . Participle from the verb raise, perfect, active, 

and refers to sailors; 
Rule XIII — Participles, etc. 

Spread Verb, transitive, irregular, past, indicative, 

active, third, plural, agreeing with its 
subject, sailors; 
Rule XI— The verb, etc. 

2. The mountains lifted their gray heads. 3. Across the ocean 
came a pilgrim bark. 4. The old man, sitting upon a log, lost his 
balance and fell into the water. 5. The ship is believed to have 
reached the port. 6. He promised to undertake the work. 7. The 
king was disturbed because he had seen a vision. 8. The general, 
observing the enemy approaching, drew up his army, and deter- 
mined to give them battle. 9. Their ammunition having failed, 
the soldiers were compelled to retreat. 10. The enemy attacked 
the fortress while the garrison slept. 11. His education appears 
to have been sadly neglected. 12. The ship, having been driven 
from her course by the gale, sought the nearest port. 13. The left 
wing advanced, supported by the cavalry. 14. Having finished 
his discourse, the orator sat down. 15. Their crops destroyed and 
their dwellings burnt, the settlers suffered greatly. 16. In that 
day, if thou hast saved a soul, it shall shine as a star in thy crown. 
17. This estate might have been bought last year for five thousand 
dollars. 18. -Hope deferred maketh the heart sick. 19. To see 
and be seen is her highest ambition. 20. To ennoble their country 
by their virtues, and then to suffer death at her hands, was the 
common lot of the Grecian worthies. 21. The river rose suddenly, 
and ten feet of the bridge was swept away by the flood. 22. The 
Creator and Euler of the universe has so ordered it. 23. One 
thousand miles of the cable has already been laid. 24. No thought, 
no word, no action escapes your Maker's notice. 

* See direction under Exercise 149, p. 234. 



THE ADVERB. 261 

LESSON LXXVIII. 

THE ADVERB. 

She sings sweetly, she dances quite elegantly, she is very 
fair. What do the adverbs sweetly, quite, and very modify ? 

Stveetly modifies the verb sings ; very modifies 
the adjective fair ; and quite modifies the adverb 
elegantly. 

What rule may be derived from these examples? 

Rule XIV. Adverbs generally modify verbs, 
adjectives, or adverbs; as. 

The boy learns rapidly; 
The apples are nearly ripe; 
I am quite busily employed. 

What notes can you give under this rule? 
Note 1. The adverb may modify an adjunct or a 
clause; as, 

It lay just below the surface; 

He acted exactly as I directed him. 

Note 2. The adverb may be used to modify a noun; as, 
He received almost a dollar; 
Wash my feet only. 

Is it correct to say, She looks coldly in that dress? 

It is not. We wish to express the quality of the subject 
site rather than the nwnner in which she looks; hence we 
say, "She looks cold in that dress." 

What note can you apply? 

Note 3. An adjective, and not an adverb, should be 
used in the predicate of a sentence when the quality of the 
subject is referred to; as, 

I feel warm in this new coat (not warmly)\ 
Ruth always appears modest (not modestly). 



262 SYNTAX. 

I never heard of it until now. How is now used here? 
Now means this time, and may be considered a noun. 
What note can you give? 
Note 4. An adverb is sometimes used as a noun; as, 

Since then the law has stood; 

All our blessings come from above. 

Why, I never heard of this before. How is why used here? 
It has no reference to any word in the sentence, and 
hence may be said to be used independently. 
Will you give a note for this use? 

Note 5. Some adverbs, such as why, yes, no, well, there, 
amen, are often used independently; as, 
Well, have you come at last? 
There, you have talked long enough. 

Make hay while the sun shines. How is while used here? 

It is used to connect the two clauses, and modifies the 
verb in each — namely, make and shines. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 6. An adverb used to connect two clauses, and 
which modifies a word in each, is called a conjunctive adverb; 

as > He stood where the fight was hottest; 

The boy did as I directed him. 

What note as to the use of the adverb where? 
Note 7. The adverb where may be used for the adjunct 
in which only when place is referred to ; as, 

I visited the place where I was born; 

This is the book in which (not where) I found the example. 

What note as to the use of two negatives? 
Note 8. Two negatives in the same proposition annul 
each other, and should not be used to express a negation ; 

as > He never does nothing (should be) He never does any 

thing; 
Nor did they not perceive (equals) They did perceive. 



THE ADVERB. 263 

What difference of meaning in these two sentences, He only 
washed his face, and He washed his face only? 

The first may imply that he merely washed his face 
without iviping it ; the latter, that he washed his face alone 
and not his hands. 

"What note may be derived from these examples? 

Note 9. Adverbs and adjuncts should be placed near 

the words which they are to modify to avoid ambiguity ; 

as, 

The letter is very neatly written; 

We always find them busy; 

We find them always busy. 

He always took a walk before he went to bed in his 

garden. 

(Corrected) He always took a walk in his garden before he went 

to bed. 

What additional notes as to the position of adverbs? 

Note 10. Adverbs generally stand before adjectives, after 
verbs in the simple tenses, and after the first auxiliary in 
compound tenses; as, 

These peaches are very good; 

He spoke kindly to the old man; 

We have lately received a letter. 

Note 11. Never, always, often, seldom, generally precede 
the words which they modify; as, 
He never goes to school; 
They always treat me kindly; 
Lightning often strikes buildings; 
Earnest men seldom fail in their undertakings. 

Note 12. Enough follows the word which it modifies; as, 
He is old enough to know better; 
We did not travel fast enough. 

Note 13. The adverbs only, not only, merely, chiefly, are 
often improperly placed; as, 

He only bought the horse, not the carriage; 
(Corrected) He bought the horse only, not the carriage. 



264 SYNTAX, 



EXERCISE 165. 



Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies: 
1. Ellen behaved very modest. 2. She looks coldly, and I am 
afraid she is dressed too thin. 3. This young lady sings beautiful 
and dances elegant. 4. The boys conducted themselves quieter 
than the girls. 5. The servant looks carefully, and I will employ 
him, for I think he will look careful to our interests. 6. Velvet 
feels smoothly. 7. The skaters glide smooth over the ice. 8. Her 
hat looks newly, because it has been new trimmed. 9. She dresses 
suitable to her station. 10. Mary always dresses neat, and she 
looks neatly in any dress. 11. She wore a dress suitably to her 
station. 12. That is the very book where I found the sentence. 
13. I chiefly wanted the money, not the papers. 14. The man is 
enough rich already. 15. We met a pretty girl riding upon a 
pony with rosy cheeks. 16. He rode to the pasture, driving his 
cow before him on horseback. 17. Next came a Dutchman riding 
a small donkey with a big pipe in his mouth. 18. There sat an 
old lady watching us as we rode by in her arm-chair. 19. This 
poem was written by a young lady, who was born in Virginia at 
the age of fourteen years. 20. We arrived safely at home, having 
traveled as safe in the cars as in our private carriage. 21. The boy 
was advised to go not only to school, but he was ordered to do so. 
22. The agent was only instructed to buy the house, not the lot. 

Exercise 166. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule XIV. 8. One illustrating Note 7. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 9. One illustrating Note 8. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 10. One illustrating Note 9. 

4. One illustrating Note 3. 11. One illustrating Note 10. 

5. One illustrating Note 4. 12. One illustrating Note 11. 

6. One illustrating Note 5. 13. One illustrating Note 12. 

7. One illustrating Note 6. 14. One illustrating Note 13. 

MODEL FOR PARSING AN ADVERB. 

1. Tell the part of speech, and why? 

2. Tell the class. 

3. Tell what it modifies. 

4. Give the rule or note which applies. 



Ex.: 



THE PRONOUN. 265 

Exercise 167. 

Parse the adverbs according to the model: 

1. The wind blows violently and the rain falls in torrents. 

1. Violently is an adverb— a word joined to another to modify it ; 

2. Adverb of manner— it tells how the wind blows; 

3. And modifies the verb blows; 
[ 4. Rule XIV— Adverbs modify, etc. 

2. The soldiers fought bravely, and the enemy soon fled. 3. He 

carefully explored the river nearly to its source. 4. I have been 

very busily employed, and am now quite weary. 5. The letter 

was so badly written that we could hardly read it. 6. She thought 

herself almost a princess. 7. There, there; do not fret about it. 

LESSON LXXIX. 
THE PRONOUN. 

In the sentence, Robert has lost his knife, what relation 
does the pronoun his sustain to the other words? 

It represents the noun Robert, and is of the same 
gender, person, and number — namely, masculine, 
third, singular. 

What rule may be derived from this relation? 

Rule XV. Pronouns agree with the nouns tvhieh 
they represent in gender, person, and number ; as, 

The girl has soiled her dress; 

Thou who speakest art the man; 

Children should love their parents and obey them. 

Mary and Lucy have lost their books. Why do we use their? 
Their is used in the plural number to represent Mary 
and Lucy together. 

What note can you apply? 

Note 1. A pronoun representing two or more singular 
nouns taken together should be in the plural number; as, 
The boy and girl have received their presents; 
Smith and Wilson have sold their forms. 



266 SYNTAX. 

(a) If the nouns are of different persons, the pronoun 
takes the first person in preference to the second or third, 
and the second in preference to the third; as, 

He and I have recited our lessons; 

You and he have recited your lessons. 

Neither James nor John excels in his studies. Why do we use 
his here instead of their? 

Because the nouns James and John are taken separately, 
and hence the pronoun is singular. 
"What note can you give? 

Note 2. A pronoun referring to two or more singular 
nouns taken separately should be in the singular number; as, 
The man or the boy will do his (not their) duty; 
The horse, as well as the ox, has had his (not their) hay. 

(a) If one of the nouns is plural, the pronoun is either 
plural or agrees with that noun which it represents ; as, 

Neither the general nor the soldiers did their duty; 
The general, and not the soldiers, did his duty. 

(6) If the nouns are of the third person and of different 
genders, the pronoun takes the masculine in preference to 
the feminine; as, 

No boy or girl must talk to his neighbor after he hears 
the bell ring. 

What note for a pronoun representing a collective noun? 

Note 3. A pronoun representing a collective noun when 
the collection is considered as a single body is in the singular 
number; as, 

The Senate passed the bill at its last session; 
This company has lost its captain. 

(a) When the individuals of the collection are referred 
to the pronoun is in the plural; as, 

The committee are divided in their opinions; 
The party carried their dinners with them. 



THE RELATIVE. 267 

What notes can you give for the use of it? 
Note 4. The pronoun it is often used to represent an 
indefinite antecedent not easily supplied; as, 

It is I; it is our children; 

It is a pleasant day; it rains. 

Note 5. It is sometimes used as a vice-subject, referring 
to a phrase or clause which follows the verb ; as, 

It is the mark of a noble spirit to forgive injuries; 
It is strange that he does not come. 

LESSON LXXX. 

THE RELATIVE. 

I who command you am the captain; I am the captain who 
commands you. How is who used in these two sentences? 

In the first it agrees with its antecedent I in the first 
person, in the second it agrees with its antecedent captain 
in the third person. 

What notes can you give for the use of the relative? 
Note 6. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, 
person, and number; as, 

This is the girl who has lost her book; 

I who say it am the author; 

I saw the men who were present. 

Note 7. The antecedent is often omitted; as, 

{He) Who giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord. 

Note 8. The relative is sometimes omitted; as, 
It was the darkest night (that) I ever saw. 

Note 9. The relative may refer to a phrase, a clause, or 
a sentence; as, 

To reach the boat, which was our only hope, now seemed 

impossible; 
If I succeed, which is very probable, you shall know it. 
You have overcome envy by virtue, which is a very 
difficult thing. 



268 SYNTAX. 

What notes as to the use of who, which, and that? 
Note 10. Who relates to persons, and to animals or 
things personified; as, 

Here is the man who bought your house; 

"Hold," said the monkey, who acted as judge. 

Note 11. Which relates to animals or things; as. 
This is the dog which bit the boy; 
The rose which you gave me is withered. 

Note 12. That may relate to persons, animals, or 
things; as, 

Alice is the youngest girl that I have; 
The dog that bit the boy was killed; 
Here is the book that you gave me. 

Note 13. That is used in preference to who or ichich: 
(a) After adjectives in the superlative degree; as, 
This is the swiftest horse that I have. 

(&) After same, very, all, and the interrogative ivho; as, 
You have the same lesson that we have; 
He is the very man that I saw; 
All that were present signed the petition; 
Who that knows him would believe it? 

(c) When there are two or more antecedents denoting 
both persons and things; as, 

I thought of the friends and home that I had left. 

What note as to a succession of relatives? 
Note 14. Relatives in different clauses referring to the 
same antecedent should be the same; as, 

The wealth which he had so eagerly sought, and which (not 
that) he had almost acquired, now vanished forever. 

What note as to the position of the relative? 
Note 15. The relative follows the antecedent, and should 
be as near to it as the construction will allow ; as, 

He that helps the poor man lends to the Lord; 
(Not) He helps the poor man that lends to the Lord. 



THE RELATIVE. 



269 



What note as to the erroneous use of what and but what? 
Note 16. What or but ivhat should not be used for the 
conjunction that; as, 

He will not believe but that (not what) I said so; 

I have no doubt that (not but what) she was there. 

"What note as to the use of each other and one another? 
Note 17. Each other relates to tivo only, one another to 
more than two; as, 

Mary and Alice love each other; 

The pupils all strive to help one another. 

Exercise 168. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies: 
1. Take up the ashes and put it in the barrel. 2. No one of 
the boys came without their books. 3. The government will have 
to change their orders. 4. Neither the boy nor the girl can take 
care of themselves. 5. The best horse which we saw was the same 
one which your father bought. 6. Pupils should always be kind 
to each other. 7. Husband and wife should respect one another's 
feelings. 8. Who who is wise would do such a thing? 9. Every 
boy and every girl had their lesson. 10. I who speaks to you am 
a friend who love you. 11. Send the multitude away, that it may 
go and buy itself food. 12. The soldiers, and not the captain, did 
his duty. 13. Do you know the lady which is playing? 14. I 
never doubted but what he was my friend. 15. Where is the horse 
whom you lately bought? 16. The horse which I bought, and 
that ran away, has come back. 17. There was a flock of sheep 
watched by a dog which had lately been sheared. 

Exercise 169. 

Write original sentences as follows: 



1. One illustrating Rule XV. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 

4. One illustrating Note 2 (a). 

5. One illustrating Note 2 (6). 

6. One illustrating Note 3. 

7. One illustrating Note 3 (a). 

8. One illustrating Note 5. 

9. One illustrating Note 8. 



10. One illustrating Note 9. 

11. One illustrating Note 10. 

12. One illustrating Note 11. 

13. One illustrating Note 12. 

14. One illustrating Note 13 (a). 

15. One illustrating Note 13 {b). 

16. One illustrating Note 13 (c). 

17. One illustrating Note 14. 

18. One illustrating Note 17. 



Ex.: i 



270 SYNTAX. 

Exercise 170. 

Parse the pronouns according to the model for nouns: 

1. We often think of our friends who are far away from us. 

1. Our is a pronoun— it stands for a noun ; 

2. Personal— it always represents the same person, the first; 

3. Common gender— it denotes either males or females; 

4. First person— it denotes the person speaking; 

5. Plural number— it denotes more than one; 

6. Possessive case— it denotes the possessor; 

7. And it is governed by the noun friends; 

8. Rule III— The possessive case, etc. 

2. I saw your sister at her uncle's to-day. 3. Will you go with 
me to see my cousin? 4. My father has sold his farm, which he 
lately bought. 5. They have forgotten to bring their books with 
them. 6. Minnie said she would go with us to see our friends. 
7. John does not like his hat because it has lost its crown. 8. The 
boy fell and hurt himself. 9. It has been the warmest season that 
we ever knew. 10. It is injurious to sit up late. 11. If he comes, 
which is very probable, let me know. 

Exercise 171. 

Parse the nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and pronouns (see direction 
under Exercise 149, p. 234) : 

1. This foolish boy whipped the dog which bit him. 2. We 

have just seen the man whom you mentioned. 3. A kind little 

girl picked up the cane which the old man had dropped. 4. The 

sun which shines so brightly by day and the moon whose mild 

beams illumine the night plainly declare the power and goodness 

of God who made them. 5. How many apples have you? Tour 

little ones. 6. The brightest fixed star that shines in the heavens 

is Sirius. 7. Some men seek wealth; others fame. 8. The thief 

that stole the watch was soon caught by an officer, who conducted 

him immediately to prison. 9. What is that which you have in 

your hand? 10. Have you heard from your brother who went to 

California last year? 11. I received several letters from him in 

May, but have received none since. 12. He seizes whatever he 

can lay his hands on. 13. This man diligently performed what 

he promised. 14. The tree in which the bird had built its nest 

was blown down by the wind. 15. One should never rejoice at 

the misfortunes of others. 






THE PEEPOSITION. 271 

LESSON LXXXI. 

THE PREPOSITION. 

The horse jumped over the fence. What is over here, 
and what relation does it sustain to the other words? 

Over is a preposition, it shows the relation 
between the noun fence and the verb jumped. 

What rule can you give for prepositions® 

Rule XVI. A preposition shows the relation 

between a noun or pronoun which is its object and 

some other word; as, 

The boy ran into the house; 
The river flows under the bridge. 

What notes can you give under this rule? 

Note 1. The object of the preposition is sometimes 
omitted; as, 

He is the man {whom) you spoke of. 

Note 2. The antecedent word is sometimes omitted; as, 
All were lost, {reckoning) from the youngest to the oldest. 

Note 3. The preposition itself is sometimes omitted: 
(a) When its own object comes between a transitive verb 
and its object; as, 

Lend (to) me your book; 

I wrote (to) the man a letter. 

(6) After the adverbs like, unlike, near, nigh, opposite, 
and some other words; as, 

The son is like (to) his father. 

(c) Before all but the first of several successive objects 
of the same preposition; as, 

The bird flew away over field, (over) river, and (over) wood. 



272 SYNTAX. 

What note as to the choice of prepositions? 

Note 4. Such prepositions should be used as are re- 
quired by the sense of the words between which they show 
the relation; as, 

The dog jumped into (not in) the water; 
This book is different from (not to) that. 

IMPROPRIETIES IN THE CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The preposition in the parenthesis is the proper one to "be used: 

1. This forest abounds with (in) game. 2. The hot day was 

followed with (by) a terrific storm. 3. Congress consists in (of) 

a Senate and House of Representatives. 4. He died with (of) a 

fever. 5. True happiness consists of (in) health and contentment. 

6. The government is founded in (upon) republican principles. 

7. He has become reconciled with (to) his brother. 8. He was 
angry at (with) his cousin. 9. The mind has an unlimited capacity 
of (for) knowledge. 10. He is anxious for (about) his brother's 
fate. 11. The boy is anxious about (for) an education. 12. The 
vessel has a capacity for (of) ten gallons. 13. He is deficient of 
(in) intelligence. 14. We found great difiiculty of (in) hearing 
the speaker. 15. Do not interfere in (with) the affairs of others. 
16. There is no need for (of) haste in the matter. 

What special notes for the use of certain prepositions? 
Note 5. Into is used after verbs denoting entrance; in 
after those denoting situation or rest; as, 
The child ran into the house; 
He remains in the house. 

Note 6. Between is applicable to two objects only; 
among to more than two; as, 

John and James divided the money between them; 
Charles divided the apples among his three sisters. 

Note 7. In is used before the names of countries, cities, 
and large towns; at before the names of houses, and often 
of villages and foreign cities; as, 

He lives in England, or in New York; 

I spent the night at the residence of my friend. 



THE PREPOSITION. 273 

Note 8. A taste of a thing implies actual possession or 
experience of it; a taste for implies inclination or capacity 
for a thing; as, 

The boy got a taste of the peach; 

He has a taste for painting. 

Note 9. We are disappointed of a thing when we fail 
to get it; we are disappointed in a thing when we get it, but 
find it different from what we expected; as, 

Mary was sick, and we were disappointed of her company; 
I was sadly disappointed in my new servant; he proved 
to be entirely worthless. 

Exercise 172. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies: 
1. My brother lives at England. 2. "We ought to profit from 
the errors of others. 3. He left New York, accompanied with his 
wife. 4. There was music, accompanied by dancing. 5. Crossing 
the Alps is attended by many difficulties. 6. Napoleon crossed 
the Alps, attended with his officers. 7. He derives great profit 
by his manufactures. 8. A great many soldiers died with their 
wounds. 9. My son has no taste of mathematics. 10. There is 
no occasion of haste, gentlemen. 11. Our cousin could not come, 
and so we were disappointed in her company. 12. I was agree- 
ably disappointed of the book which you sent me. 

Exercise 173. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule XVI. 7. One illustrating Note 4. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 8. One illustrating Note 5. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 9. One illustrating Note 6. 

4. One illustrating Note 3 (a). 10. One illustrating Note 7. 

5. One illustrating Note 3 (6). 11. One illustrating Note 8. 

6. One illustrating Note 3 (c). 12. One illustrating Note 9. 

MODEL FOR PARSING A PREPOSITION. 

1. Tell the part of speech, and why. 

2. Tell the relation it shows. 

3. Give the rule or note which applies. 

18 



274 SYNTAX. 

Exercise 174. 

Parse the prepositions according to the model : 

1. He struck the horse with a whip which he had in his hand. 

r 1. With is a preposition— it is placed "before a word 
to show its relation; 
Example : - 2. It shows the relation between the verb struck and 
the noun whip; 
3. Rule XVI— A preposition, etc. 

2. The rain falls from the clouds upon the earth. 3. Our route 

lay toward the west, through a vast forest. 4. The balloon rose 

with buoyancy into the air. 5. At his feet crouched the prisoner, 

begging for mercy. 6. The trees along the river were loaded with 

foliage. 7. Under a tree which stood before the door of a cottage 

was a little girl at play. 8. He traveled about the country with a 

pack upon his back. 9. A tree blown down by the wind lay 

across the track. 10. He lives in a large city on the banks of 'a 

beautiful river. 

LESSON LXXXII. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

When I say, The sun sets and the night comes on, what 
is and, and what relation does it sustain? 

And is a conjunction, and connects the sentences 

the sun sets and the night comes on. 

In the sentence, I will go if you desire, what does if 
connect? 

It connects the clauses / will go and you desire. 

He ran down the hill and across the valley. What does 
and connect? 

It connects the phrases down the hill and across 

the valley. 

The boy works or plays. What does or connect? 
It connects the words works and plays. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 275 

What rule then can you give for conjunctions t 
Rule XVII. Conjunctions connect sentences 

and clauses, as well as phrases and words, in the 

same construction; as, 

The father went to the field, and the son went to school ; 
He is happy, although he is poor; 
Will you go by railroad or in your own carriage? 
Our pupils read and write. 

What note can you give under this rule? 

Note 1. The conjunction is sometimes omitted; as, 

I knew (that) you had the money; 

The pupils read, (and) write, and cipher. 

What note for that instead of lest or but that? 

Note 2. After expressions of doubt, fear, denial, the 
conjunction that (not lest, but that, or but what) should be 
used; as, 

I do not doubt that he is honest; 
I fear that he will not recover. 

Is it correct to say, I am older, but not so tall as my brother ? 

It is not. The clause I am older requires after it a 
different conjunction from as, which is required by the 
clause not so tall; hence we should say, u Iaiu older than 
my brother, but not so tall (as he is)." 

What note can you give? 

Note 3. A clause should not be joined by a conjunction 
to two other clauses unless the conjunction is appropriate to 

each; as, 

Mary is not so pretty, but more modest than her sister ; 
(Corrected) Mary is not so pretty as her sister, but more modest. 

What note for the use of corresponding conjunctions? 

Note 4. In the use of corresponding conjunctions such 
a subsequent should be chosen as is appropriate to the ante- 
cedent. 



276 SYNTAX. 



CONJUNCTIONS CORRESPONDING WITH CONJUNCTIONS. 

Both . . . and — Both gold and silver are precious metals. 
Either . . . or — I will either go or stay. 
Neither . . . nor — He neither studies nor learns. 
Whether . . . or — Whether it will rain or snow is uncertain. 
Though, although . . . yet, still, nevertheless — Though he is young, 
yet he is learned. 



CONJUNCTIONS CORRESPONDING WITH ADVERBS. 

As ... as (expressing equality) — Nellie is as pretty as her 

sister. 
As ... so (expressing comparison) — As the stars, .so shall thy 

seed he. 
So ... as (after a negation) — The ox is not so swift as the 

horse. 
So . . . that (expressing a consequence) — The night was so dark 

that we could not see. 
Not only . . . hut also — She is not only pretty, hut also modest. 
Rather . . . than — He would rather heg than work. 

CONJUNCTIONS CORRESPONDING WITH THE ADJECTIVE SUCH. 

Such . . . as (expressing comparison) — I never saw such hoys 

as these. 
Such . . . that (expressing a consequence) — Such is his energy 

that he seldom fails. 

Exercise 175. 

Correct the errors, and give the rule or note which applies: • 

1. Neither gold or silver is found there. 2. Jupiter is almost 
so "bright as Yenus. 3. I fear lest we shall not arrive in season. 
4. The horse is swifter, hut not so strong as the ox. 5. There is 
no one as wise that he does not sometimes make mistakes. 6. I 
do not douht hut what you could ohtain the place. 7. I was not 
sure if it was a fox or a wolf. 8. The camel has as much strength 
and more endurance than the horse. 



Ex.: 



THE INTERJECTION. 277 

Exercise 176. 

Write original sentences as follows: 

1. One illustrating Rule XVII. 4. One illustrating Note 3. 

2. One illustrating Note 1. 5. One illustrating Note 4. 

3. One illustrating Note 2. 

MODEL FOR PARSING A CONJUNCTION. 

1. Tell the part of speech. 

2. Tell the class, and why. 

3. Tell what it connects. 

4. Give the rule or note which applies 

Exercise 177. 

Parse the conjunctions according to the model: 
1. The men work and the boys play. 

1. And is a conjunction; 

2. Co-ordinate— it connects parts of equal rank; 

3. It connects the sentences the men work and the boys play; 
, 4. Rule XVII— Conjunctions connect, etc. 

2. The boys and girls will study or play. 3. He will go to school 

if he can find his book. 4. It is now winter, but the weather is 

not cold. 5. He did as I directed him. 6. Unless the weather 

moderates we shall have a frost to-night. 7. He does not study, 

because he has lost his book. 8. He is either a fool himself or 

he thinks others so. 

LESSON LXXXHI. 
THE INTERJECTION. 

In the sentence, Oh! leave me not alone, what is oh, and 
what relation does it sustain to the other words? 

Oh is an interjection, and has no grammatical 

connection with the rest of the sentence. 

What rule may be given for interjections f 

Rule XVIII. Interjections are grammatically 

independent of the rest of the sentence; as, 

Alas l my little bird is dead! 
Hurrah I the day is ours! 



278 SYNTAX. 

What note can you give under this rule? 
Note 1. The interjections ah and oh are sometimes 
followed by the objective me, which is governed by some 
word understood; as, 

Ah me! how wretched I am! i.e., Ah (pity) me! or (woe 
is to) me. 

MODEL FOR PARSING AN INTERJECTION. 

1. Tell the part of speech and why. 

2. Give the rule or note which applies. 

Exercise 178. 

Parse the interjections according to the model: 
1. Ah! few shall part where many meet! 

•g . J 1. Ah is an interjection — it is used to express an emotion of grief; 
"(2. Rule XVIII— Interjections are, etc. 

2. O grave! where is thy victory? 3. Alas! the way is long and 

tedious. 4. Ah me! how miserable I am! 5. Whew! how the 

wind blows! 

General Parsing Exercise 179. 

Parse all the words in order (see direction under Exercise 149, p. 234): 
1. In that building the master taught his little school. 2. He 
visited the Alps, which abound in fine scenery. 3. Every person, 
whatever be his station, is bound by the duties of morality and 
religion. 4. He began to think he had done wrong in concealing 
the prisoner. 5. Take care that you do not fall and break the 
glasses. 6. As their governess was present, the children behaved 
properly. 7. In crossing the mountains they were almost buried 
in the snows. 8. Though he has willfully injured me, yet I can 
forgive him. 9. The dogs caught the fox after having pursued it 
for six miles. 10. I started on my journey the next morning, 
having been very kindly entertained by the old hunter. 11. And 
the multitude wondered when they saw the lame walk and the 
blind see. 12. Looking out upon the ocean, I saw a stately vessel 
gallantly buffeting the waves. 13. One day the miners made a 
discovery that startled them. 14. Agreeable in her manners, ami- 
able in disposition, and obliging to all, she was a general favorite. 



GENERAL PARSING EXERCISE. 279 

15. The general immediately ordered his horse to be brought, and, 
leaping into the saddle, rode rapidly to the front. 16. God called 
the light day, and the darkness he called night. 17. He charged 
me a dollar for the book. 18. That able scholar and critic has at 
last been answered. 19. Where thriving cities now stand the 
savage once raised his rude wigwam. 20. What! could ye not 
watch with me one hour? 21. Be busy, brave, benevolent, and 
you will be beloved. 22. Education and religion are the twin 
pillars which support the temple of national prosperity. 23. Upon 
this field many a brave soldier has closed his eyes in that sleep 
that knows no waking. 24. Keen blew the wind, and bitter was 
the cold. 25. Some cried one thing and some another, and the 
whole assembly was in an uproar. 26. Genius and Learning walk 
in the train of Virtue. 27. At the North Cape in Norway the sun 
in midsummer does not set for several weeks. 28. How strange 
it must seem to go to bed by daylight! 29. Alas! my noble boy, 
that thou shouldst die! 30. His knapsack having been packed, he 
was ready to march. 31. He little dreams what dangers threaten 
him. 32. The thief refused to tell from whose pocket he had stolen 
the money. 33. The gambler himself complained of having been 
cheated. 34. On digging where the robbers had indicated they 
found the stolen treasure. 35. The cave is supposed to have been 
a resort for robbers. 36. I gave the money to the peasant whose 
mule I had taken. 37. I confess I had no hope of being released. 

38. He was in despair at the certainty of being a prisoner for life. 

39. The servant shows a disposition to do what he can. 40. The 
lion, the grim monarch of the forest, roams here unmolested. 
41. The sheriff at last found the old rogue himself hidden in a 
wood. 42. It can not be true that the world was made by chance. 
43. Promising to visit us again, our friends departed. 44. We 
heard the coming storm howling through the forest. 45. The tree 
grew near a deep pit, partially filled with rubbish. 46. Islands 
yielding every variety of fruit dotted the sea. 47. To climb the 
precipice was a dangerous experiment. 48. I saw the smoke rise 
from the burning dwelling. 49. Their labors finished, the tired 
reapers trudged slowly home. 50. Whoever said that must have 
been misinformed. 51. The prisoner escaped by letting himself 
down from a window. 52. Having killed the guard, the prisoner 
escaped. 53. Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of 



280 SYNTAX. 

the army. 54. The article was a specious humbug, made by one 
Gullem, a tinker. 55. The prize to be awarded was a gold medal. 
56. The people elected John Smith governor of the colony. 

57. Sweet was the sound when oft at evening's close 
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. 

58. Cold in the dust the perished heart may lie, 
But that which warmed it once shall never die. 

LESSON LXXXIV. 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

When I say, There is an if in the way, what is if as here used? 
A noun, because it is used as the name of a word. 
What note can you derive from this example? 
Note 1. Any word used as the name of itself is a 
noun; as, 

Parse the first and in the sentence; 

You have spelled pretty wrong. 

When I say, It is a calm day, what is calm, and why? 
An adjective, because it describes the noun day. 
A calm succeeded the storm. What is calm here? 
A noun, because it is a name of a state of the weather. 
Soft words calm the passions. What is calm in this sentence? 
A verb, because it expresses an action? 
What note may be derived from these illustrations? 
Note 2. The same word by changing its meaning may 
become a different part of speech; as, 

The vases stand upon the stand; 

I saw the saw saw off a log; 

They look upon the money with an eager look. 

How may as be used? 

1. As a conjunction — As it rained, we could not go. 

2. As an adverb — John is as much to blame as James. 

3. As a relative pronoun — -Let such as hear take heed. 



WORDS USED IN DIFFERENT SENSES. 281 

How may both be used? 

1. As an adjective — Both houses are for sale. 

2. As a conjunction — He both buys and sells goods. 

How may but be used? 

1. As an adverb — We are but of yesterday. 

2. As a preposition— All but me ran away. 

3. As a conjunction — Life is short, but art is long. 

How may much be used? 

1. As a noun — Where much is given much will be required. 

2. As an adjective — I have not much money. 

3. As an adverb — This man is much respected. 

More and little are also used in the same way. 

How may since be used? 

1. As an adverb — That event happened long since. 

2. As a preposition — I have not seen him since last week. 

3. As a conjunction — I will come, since you request it. 

How may before be used? 

1. As an adverb — He went away before I saw him. 

2. As a preposition — He stood before the door. 

After, above, below, etc., are used in the same way. 

How may that be used? 

1. As an adjective — He lives in that house. 

2. As a pronoun — I have found the knife that I lost. 

3. As a conjunction — I hope that you will succeed. 

How may for be used? 

1. As a preposition — The earth was made for man. 

2. As a conjunction — Love God, for he loves you. 

How may what be used? 

1. As an adjective — What noise was that? 

2. As a pronoun — He took what he wanted. 

3. As an interjection — What! do you mean to rob us? 

How may fast be used? 

1. As a noun — They ate voraciously after their long fast. 

2. As an adjective — He drives a fast horse. 

3. As a verb — The Pharisees fast often. 

4. As an adverb — He walked very fast. 



282 SYNTAX. 

How may like be used? 

1. As a noun — I never saw the like before. 

2. As an adjective — Make like spaces between the lines. 

3. As a verb — You may go or stay, as you like. 

4. As an adverb — He stares like an idiot. 

Exercise 180. 

Parse the italicized words in the following sentences: 

1. I saw a fair lady at the fair last night. 2. He has more 
money, but he is not more happy, than the peasant. 3. The general 
rode before the lines before the battle commenced. 4. Christ was 
able to still the tempest, but the disciples were still afraid, even 
upon the still waters. 5. The chemist poured the liquid into a 
copper still. 6. This boy has equal talent with his brother, he 
equals him in industry, and is his equal in every respect. 7. The 
gay lady little thinks of the misery which dwells in that little hut. 
8. Though he has not much education, he has seen much of the 
world, and has been much flattered. 9. Though he is old, yet his 
health is good; he is yet active. 10. He kept the money till night, 
and did not leave till he had put it all safe in the till. 11. They 
invited us all, but no one went but me. 12. If we do not succeed, 
we can but fail. 13. What! do you mean what you say? 14. At 
what price did you sell your horse? 15. What does he care for 
money when he already has more than he knows what to do with? 
16. He once fell into a well which was not well covered, and has 
not been a well man since. 17. Many springs well up from the 
sands in that region. 18. Such horses as I bought yesterday are 
as much superior to these as you can imagine. 19. George says 
that that that that that boy parsed was not parsed correctly. 

Exercise 181. 

Fill the blanks with the same words as a different part of speech: 

1. He rides .... because he has a . . . . horse. 2. That vessel's 
.... can .... a hundred tons. 3. The vessel .... by means of 
her .... 4. The moon sends her .... through the .... curtains, 
and we need not .... our lamps. 5. These animals can make .... 
gestures, and can walk .... men, if they .... 



PUNCTUATION. 283 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written language 
by points, so that its meaning may be readily understood. 

Note 1. The period (.) is used after every complete declarative 
or imperative sentence. " Life is short. Kemember thy Creator." 

Note 2. The period is used after abbreviations. "Dr. (Doctor), 
Mrs. (Mistress), Oct (October)." 

Note 3. The interrogation-point (?) is used at the end of a 
question. "Has your father returned? What is the matter?" 

Note 4. The exclamation -point (!) is used after a word or 
collection of words expressing a passion or sudden feeling. "Ah! 
how miserable I am! Hail, Virtue!" 

Note 5. The colon (:) is used to introduce a proposition not 
formally connected with what precedes. "No hope for the future 
was left to him: his money, his friends, and his health were all 
gone." 

Note 6. The colon is used before an enumeration of particulars 
after the words this, these, the following, or as follows. "The 
branches taught are as follows: History, grammar, etc." 

Note 7. The semicolon (;) is used between the larger members 
of a compound sentence when not closely connected. "America, 
often called the New World, was discovered in 1492 ; but it was 
not settled till many years afterward." 

Note 8. The semicolon is used before the conjunction as, in- 
troducing an example. "The period should follow an abbrevia- 
tion; as, Esq. for Esquire." 

Exercise 1. 



Insert the different punctuation points where required : 
1. Air is lighter than water 2. Who spoke I do not know 
who spoke 3. Dr Jas A Smith died at Kichmond Ya, Jan 4, 1869 
4. Alas my dearest friend is dead 5. Where were looking-glasses 
first made 6. He is a friend who tells us of our faults he is an 
enemy who speaks of our virtues 7. There are eight parts of 
speech the noun, the adjective, etc 8. A noun is a name of a 
thing as, pen, book 



284 SYNTAX. 

Note 9. The comma ( , ) separates the clauses of a sentence 
when not closely connected. "He continued to labor, though he 
was rich." 

Note 10. The comma separates words and clauses that are 
contrasted. "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." 

Note 11. The comma is used before and after phrases and 
clauses that are not restrictive (i. e., not essential to the sense). 
"His brother, who happened to be present, opposed the measure." 

Note 12. The comma separates words and phrases used inde- 
pendently from the rest of the sentence. "Son, give me thy heart. 
To confess the truth, I was angry." 

Note 13. The comma is used before and after a noun with its 
modifiers which is the appositive of a preceding noun. " Cicero, 
the greatest orator of Eorae, was condemned to death." 

Note 14. A comma is used after all but the last of three or 
more words of the same class connected by conjunctions either 
expressed or understood. "He is a brave, wise, and pious man." 

(b) "When the words are in pairs the pairs are separated by 
commas. " Summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease." 

Exercise 2. 

Insert commas where they are required: 

1. He who preserves me to whom I owe my being whose I am 
and whom I serve is eternal. 2. Earth and sea day and night 
summer and winter show forth the wisdom and goodness of the 
Creator. 3. His appearance not his talents attracted attention. 
4. Miltiades the son of Cimon was an Athenian. 

Note 16. The dash ( — ) is used to mark a sudden break in con- 
struction or transition in sentiment. " The boy — oh ! where was 
he? The captain had a martial bearing, and — a very red nose." 

Note 17. The dash is often used instead of the parenthesis. 
"Her face — faded, though still young — riveted the gaze of all." 

Kote 18. The parenthesis ( ) includes words which are explan- 
atory or incidental to the main sentence. "The alligator (so the 
American crocodile is called) abounds in the bayous of Louisiana." 

Note 19. The brackets [ ] are used to inclose an explanatory 
term interpolated or added to the original by some other author. 
"His native state [Virginia] had already seceded." 



PUNCTUATION. 285 

Note 20. The apostrophe (') is used as the sign of the possessive 
case, and also to mark the omission of letters from a word. "I have 
John's book. O'er for over; den for even; it 's for it is" 

Note 21. The hyphen (-) connects the parts of a compound 
word. u Ill-natured ; forget-me-not." 

Note 22. The hyphen is used to connect the syllables of a 
word when separated at the end of a line. It is not proper to 
divide a syllable at the end of a line. 

Note 23. The quotation-points ("") are used to inclose words 
taken from another author. "Franklin says, ' Time is money.' " 

Exercise 3. 

Insert dashes, parentheses, brackets, apostrophes, hyphens, and quota- 
tion-points where required: 

1. She is very witty, very refined, very affable, and very fat. 

2. Byron and the same may be said of many a better man was the 

cause of his own unhappiness. 3. These are the finest oranges 

which that I ever ate. 4. Just as the twig is bent alas ! it is too 

often bent the wrong way the tree's inclined. 5. We 11 sit neath 

willows by the waters edge. 6. My sister was a laughter loving, 

bright eyed, pure hearted girl. 7. The Grecian sage said, Know 

thyself. 8. A bird in the hand, says an old proverb, is worth two 

in the bush. 

LETTERS. 

A Letter is a character used in printing or writing 
to represent a sound of the human voice. 

Orthography is that part of grammar which treats of letters. 

The English alphabet consists of tv-enty-six letters. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter which can be sounded alone. The vowels 
are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

A consonant is a letter which is sounded with the aid of a 
vowel. The consonants are all the letters of the alphabet except 
the vowels; w and y are consonants when immediately followed 
by a vowel-sound in the same syllable; as, wine, reward, yet. In 
other cases w and y are vowels ; as, now, pray, sawing. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels in the same syllable; 
as, on in pound; oa in boat. 



286 SYNTAX. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
sounded; as, oi in voice; ou in hour. 

An improper diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels 
is sounded; as, ea in beat; ai in maid. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels in the same syllable; 
as, eau in beauty; iew in view. 

WORDS. 

A Word is a syllable, or combination of syllables used 
as the sign of some idea. 

A syllable is one or more letters pronounced with a single 
impulse of the voice; as, man, on-ly, man-ful-ly. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable; as, a, on, boy. 

A dissyllable is a word of two syllables; as, li-on, good-ness. 

A trissyllable is a word of three syllables; as, li-on-ess, beau-ti-ful. 

A polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables; as, 
li-on-ess-es, in-di-vis-i-bil-i-ty. 

A primitive word is one not derived from any other word in 
the language; as, boy, holy, love, 

A derivative word is one which is derived from some other word 
in the language; as, boyish, holiness, lovely. 

A simple word is one which can not be separated into two or 
more words; as, school, sister. 

A compound word is one which is composed of two or more 
simple words; as school-master, sister-in-law. 

Exercise 4. 

Tell in which words w and y are vowels, and in which consonants: 

1. Water, cow, window, crowing, youth, joyous, glory, new, 
eye, whip, playing, saw, yellow, lying, young, swine. 

Point out the proper and improper diphthongs ; also the triphthongs : 

2. Goat, ounce, meat, noise, bread, furious, afraid, buoyant. 

Name the monosyllables, dissyllables, trissyllables, and polysyllables ; 
also the primitive, derivative, and compound words: 

8. Blush, silvery, moonbeam, manly, rosy-tinted, sleeping, 

hill-side, sister-in-law, lakelet, school-days, beauty, railroad. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 287 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by letters. 

Note 1. Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s preceded by a 
single vowel double the final consonant; as, hill, miss, kiss, staff. 
Exceptions — As, has, gas, was, yes, if, is, his, this, of, us, pus, thus. 

Note 2. Words ending in any other consonant than /, I, or s 
do not double the final consonant; as, rub, hat, man. Exceptions — 
Add, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, bunn, butt, buzz, fuzz, purr. 

Note 3. "Words ending in II drop one I when less or ly is 
added; as, skill, skilless; chill, chilly. 

Note 4. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel double 
that consonant on receiving a termination beginning with a vowel; 
as, hot, hotter; drop, dropped; begin, beginning. 

Note 5. Final e is dropped before terminations beginning with 
a vowel; as, ride, rider; give, giving; force, forcible. Exceptions — 

1. Final e when preceded by c or g is retained before terminations 
beginning with a or o; as, peace, peaceable; courage, courageous. 

2. Final e when preceded by e or o is retained before ing; as, see, 
seeing; hoe, hoeing. 

Note 6. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
y into i when a termination other than ing is added; as, happy, 
happier; merry, merriment. Remarks — 1. Words ending in ie 
drop e and change i into y before ing ; as, lie, lying ; die, dying. 
2. Dyeing, from dye, retains the e to distinguish it from dying, the 
participle of die. 

Exercise 5. 

Correct the errors in spelling, and give the note which applies: 

1. Spel, warr, gunn, spoted, diging, refering, seing, prettyer, 
wastful, lovly, permited, carelesly, slaveish, changable, moveable. 

Write derivatives ending in ing from the following words: 

2. Face, spin, open, stop, stoop, remit, visit, propel, shoe, die. 

Write derivatives ending in able from the following: 

3. Surmount, peace, move, trace, value, efface, endure, ply, suit. 

Write derivatives ending in ed from the following: 

4. Care, thin, open, bedim, hop, hoop, offer, defer, obey. 



288 SYNTAX. 



CAPITAL LETTEBS. 



There are two forms of letters used in printing and writing — 
namely, small letters and capital letters. 

Small letters are used for most purposes in printing and writing. 

Capital letters are used to begin words in the following cases : 

Case 1. The first word of every distinct sentence. 

Case 2. Proper nouns, and common names personified; as, 
George; Sir Walter Scott; Main Street; Hail, gentle Spring! 

Case 3. Titles of office or honor, and names of public bodies; 
as, Governor Jones; Judge Marshall; Congress; the Baptists. 

Case 4. Adjectives derived from proper names; as, American, 
Newtonian. 

Case 5. Appellations of the Deity; as, God; the Almighty; 
the Most High. 

Case 6. The first word of every line in poetry. 

Case 7. Direct quotations forming complete sentences ; as, 
the Bible says, "Remember thy Creator. 11 

Case 8. Every noun and principal word in the title of books, 
etc. ; as, Webster's Dictionary of the English Language. 

Case 9. The pronoun I and the interjection O. 

Case 10. Words that are remarkably emphatic or the prin- 
cipal subjects of discourse. 

Exercise 6. 

Put capital letters where they are required, and give the case which 
applies : 

1. honesty is the best policy. 2. george visited europe with his 
uncle scott, where he saw london and paris, the alps and the rhine. 
3. congress is composed of the senate and the house of representa- 
tives. 4. I have read several french and german works. 5. The 
jews would not receive jesus christ as the messiah. 6. solomon 
says, "a wise man feareth and departeth from evil." 7. o time! 
how few thy value weigh! 8. i have been reading rollin's ancient 
history. 9. On monday, april 14th, the new steamer ocean queen 
will be launched, o how i should like to see it! 



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